A GHQGRAPHICAL ARALTSIS OF THE POPULATION AND RURAL ECONOMIC DLVKUJIÜäNT IN THE MIDDLE BEZ/T OF NIGERIA* A GASS STUBT IROM BIM AND MINNA BTOSICiS OF NIGäi H10VIHC3 BT HHIOLA OLOKUNTOBI ABENIYI, B.A. (HOHE.) Thesis Subaitted in Part Fulfilment of the ilequir&aents For the Ph.D, Degree in Geography Univeraity of Ihadan Decenber, 1972 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - i - contents List of Tables .. ................................. ▼ List of Maps and Diagrams .. •• *. .• •• vil Aeknowledgement «, .. .. .. .. .. .. Tiü Abstract •• •• •• .. .. •• •• .. * m m 1 m .m a a u i The Nigeria» Middle Belt .. 1 The Physical Baais .. > 2 Climate , .. 2 Vegetation .. .. ,, 8 Relief and Soils .. 9 River Alluvium Soil Unit .. .. .. 10 The Hupe Plains and Scarps Soil Unit .. .. 11 The Basement Complex Soil Unit •• .. .. 12 The Human Basis •• *• •• •• *• 13 The Historical i'actor in the Middle Belt Population 17 The Economic Basis •• •• .. .. .. The Changing Economy of the Middle Belt .. 1923 2 28 The "Labour Surplus“ Theory .. .. .« 30 The "Land Surplus“ Theory .• .. .. .. 35 Operational Basis for the r,Land Surplus“ Model .. 37 Objectives of the Study .. •• .« .. 42 , Methodologe and Data Collection •• .. 43 3 wPOPUjsLAmTImON mmLm..L..m ...m..m...&..j.m...s..m.... s.l. .m....... 48 The Population Size and Distribution .. 48 Low Density Districts .. ., .. .. 51 Medium Density Districts .. .. .. 52 High Population Density Districts „ 55 Changing Pattems of Population Distribution .. 57 Tribal Distribution .. ,* .. 61 Age and Sex Distribution .. .. .. .. 66 Hale-Pemale Ratio .. .. .. .. .. 71 Marital Status .. .. .. .. 72 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHATOBu Religion .. . 75 Aducaticn •• . • • 80 Population Growth 85 4 m m n m m m s x s . •* 95 The Parming Unit .. .. .. • • 95 Organisation of the Sanflu „ »• 97 Changiag Patterns of the Organisation of Faraing Units •• •• •• •• 99 Implications of the Changes for Rural Aoonomic Development »• .* •• •• 105 üouroea of Agricultural Labour .. .. 106 Family Labour .» .. •• •• 106 The Hole of Women in Jhmily Labour .. 108 Co-operative ar Collective Labour .. 109 Wage Labour •• •• •• •• 111 The 'Land Rurplus* i'heory in xielatioa to the Middle Belt .. .. . .. • • 113 Land and Labour elationsMpe .. • * 114 Labour Unit .. .. • • # » 115 Determinante of Rise of Para • * • • 118 5 m 120 Cbjectives •• • • • * 120 Land Tenure Systems • •• ♦ * 121 (i) Conaunal Ownership of Land . • * 122 Evolution of Individual Land Ownership 124 (ü) Fioflioldü and Individual Ihraily Ownership of Land • • *#- • * 129 Organisation of Agricultural Land and Rural Economic Development .. ** ,, 139 Security of Land Title • • 140 Mobility of Farmers • • • • 141 Exploitation of Peasant Barmers Land-Use .. ,, .. • ♦ 143 145 6 PATTYS OF LASS VS& Mü A3:gCULIURAL PRODUCTION 148 Land Use •• •• •• .. 150 üultivat .d Upland .. 152 Cultivated Fadaraa .» .. 154 Bush i’allow • • .. 156 Bush and üther üncultivated Land 157 Settlwmts •• .. ti 158 UNIV RSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY iii SSUSM I h n ilosd and Bush Püths .. •• •• •• •• 159 iilTOD) •« •« •• •• *• •• •• 159 _ Land Ua-i and Carrying Capacity of the Laad .. 160 Number and Acreage of Farm Holdings and Crop Production •• •• »* •• •• • • 165 Crop Production »• •• •• #• •• 168 The Hole of Agriculture in the Economic Devslopsaont of Nigeria •• •• •• •• 168 ̂ j&part Crops Versus Food Crops .. •• «, 170 Crops Groun •• • • • • •• *• »• 172 Factors Deterraining Crops Crown «• •» 179 Increasing Demand fcsr Food Crops »« #» •• 182 Prioe Eise in Food Crops .. •• • « .« 185 Ilalpracticon By Marketing Board Agents .. • • 185 Type of Farmland •• •• •• •• •• 136 Land Tenure •• •• •• •• «. •• 186 Tribe and Choioe of Crops •• •• *• •• 187 7 w The Bois of Transport in Hural Developneat .. 191 Transport Facilities •• *• •• •• •« 192 Effects of Transportation on Crop Marketing •• 195 The Structure of Food Crop Marketing •• .. 200 Classification of Harkets ,, .. .. 202 ioadside Markets .« .. .. .. 204 Village Markets •• •• •• •• • * 204 Central Martets •• •• •• •• •* 206 Urban Harkets •• •• •» •• •• •• 207 Harkst Location and Distribution •• », .. 210 Market Perlodicity ,« •• •• •• •• 215 The Hole of Hiddlemen in Crop Marketing .« .. 215 The Problems of Marketing Food Crops •• .. 218 Laok of ötaady Demand for Food Crops •• .. 219 Problems of Food Crop Stcrags and Processing •• 221 Hestziotive Practices by Local Authorities .. 225 Unlqusness of Food Crop Marketing Problems .. 225 s sl,, m m a m ..............227 Increasing Coimaercialisation of Agriculturo .. 228 Eising Level of Incooe •• •• •• •• 257 Increasing Intensity of Lsnd-use .. .. •« The Development of Small Scale Irrigation Schönes 259 240 Increasing Cultivatioa of Hioe .. •• •• 245 Aeonoadc Aspocts of Rice Production • # 248 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY «. iv - CHAtTER Page The Derelopaent of Large Scale Sb täte and Peasant .ferning .. •• .. «« 250 Livestoch Production ». •« ,« 251 9 m m m •• ..................... 254 HSKämGhS AMD BlBLIOGiUPHlJiS .. .. .. 265 AFPtfUHCES M ..................... 279 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - V - a a u a L M M a . TABLB & ßS. 1 Hean Annual and Absolute Hainfall, (1950-63) in inchea 4 2 Kaan Konthly .nini'all in inehes «, .. .» .. 6 3, Hean Number of Hain Days (1951-1960) •• •• •• 7 4 Human Contraats Betwoan the liiddle Belt and Sudan hone Provincea of Nigeria •• •• •• •• 16 (&) Major Tribal Groups: Percentage of Total *« 16 (b) -ieligian •• • • •• •• ** •« 16 5 öLatrict Population Bensities «• •« •• .« 50 6 (a) Tribal Population Figurea (1920) .. .. *• 62 (b) Tribal Population Figures (1952) •• •• •• 63 7 Number of W VW Per Married Han •• •» «. •• 74 8 Religioua Groups: Percentage of Population *• .* 76 9 Literaoy and Bducatianal Standard (1952) •• •• 82 10 Litaracy and B&teational Standard (1969) •« .. 83 11 Primary School Attendance Age Group 7-14 Yearo *• 84 12 Population Growth 1931-1952 •• .« .. «• 87 13 Hurber of Children Allve Per Hother By Principal Tribos in Northern Nigeria •• •• •• •• •• 09 14 Fertility Surrey cf Moam in Reproductive Age Groups .. 90 15 Growth in Tazable Population 1958-1968 •• .. 92 16 Types of Farmiag Units .. ,, »• ,* 96 17 Farmers* üources of Labour on the £hrm .* *• .. 107 18 Average Sise of Farming Units, Labour Units and Ibra Acreages •• •• .* •* •• •• 117 19 average Aoreage and Peroentage of Land Tenure of Farmlands by a Sample of Fanaars ** .. M 125 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY n TABLB Page. 20 Tribute Payment in Jima/Doko and Katcha Diatricta .. 137 21 Bstimated Percentaßea of Typen of Land Ose •• •• 151 22 Number of Farming Units mth Different Number of Foras 166 23 Average Size of Farns (in Actos) •• •• •• 168 24 Hain Crop Coabinationa and Jiotation (Opland Cultivation) 174 25 Priees of Farm Cropa (Par Ton) at Abuja and 3ida 1964 and 1969 .. » •• •• .» .. 184 *26 (a) Xaa Marketing Coats (Per Ton) »• •• •• 196 (b) Guinea Com Marketing Costa Per Bag (100 Müdus) 196 (e) Uiee Marketing Coats Per Bag (lOG.Mudus)». •• 196 27 (a) Yam Marketing Per Tom ..................... 197 (b) Guinea: Com Marketing Coats Per iludu •• •• 197 (e) Kies Marketing Costa Per Mudu .. .. •« 197 28 Market Price of Main Food Crepe, JuXy 1969 •• •• 198 29 Patterns of Trade at Gvagvalada and Bafa Market* .. 209 30 Increase in Average Biso of Farm« Per Parsing Unit 1963/64 and 1966/69 (in Actos) .. .. .♦ 229 31 Bstimated Percentage of Farmers' Total Food Crop Production for tho Market 1963/64 and 1966/69 Crop ieaoans «. •• •• .. •• 231 32 Crop Produc tim for Marketing (shoving Main Producing/ Marketing Centree and Bstimated 'Deport' fron the study Area in 1968/69 Cropping Seasoa) .. •• 232 33 Average Income Per Household (£H) •• .. «« 237 34 Paddy Aloe Yields on Different Types of Farme (lbs Per Acre) .................................. 243 35 Main Irrigation Schemas .» »« .. .. M 244 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - vii » UdT OF KAPS Ü B J B B i t t FIQUKS Paae 1a The Middle Belt Sfcowing the Study Area •• •• •• 1 1b The Study Areas Local Authority and Administrative Districta «• »• «» •• •« •• •• 2 2 The Nigeria» Middle Belt •• •• •• •• •« 3 3 Belief and Drainage .. •• •• *. «• 9 4 Major Soll Units •• «• «* •• •• 10 5 Population Baosity - Nigeria (1952) •• •• .. 13 6 Agricultural Srpoart Production Par Person .. •• 19 7 Agricultural Export Production Per Square Mile •• •• 20 8 The Isolation o£ Labour to Land .. .. •• *• 30 9 The Relation Betseen Fhysical Output and Labour ». 35 10 Population Density •« •• •• •• •• •• 43 11 Population Distribution .. •• .. •• •• 50 12 Age and Seat Pyranld •• •• •• •• •• 63 15 Land i'enure Systems •• •• »• •• «• 122 14 Land Use at Pandogari •• • • .. •• •• 150 15 Land Use at Faiko •• •• •• •• *• •• 151 16 Land Use at Katefca • • •• •• • • •• •• 152 17 Transport Routea •• •• •• *• •• •• 192 18 Chain of Intermediaries Betseen Producers and Consumers in the Internal I&change Sconomy of the Middle Belt •• 201 19 Market Location .« «, •• «A .. 210 20 Market Periodic!ty •• ,, #« „ «, •« 213 21 Main Irrigation Schema *• •• •• .» •• 242 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ▼iii This thesis has benefited imnensely frm the eneourageoeat md active co-operation of several individualo whoao nazaes are too zaany to be listed höre. I am greatly indebted to thea, I am particulariy indebted to Prof* K* M. Barbour, who initially kindl̂ ay lateres t in tho subject and superviBod the work at every atoge aa «eil as provided and austained tho Inspiration which «mied me through tho post-graduate exereise. I am grateful for bis eneourageoeat, guidance and oynpathetio imdorStanding of Problems involved and for hie invalnable advice throughout• I eepecially thank the 3taff of tho Department of Geography, üniver- sity of Ibadan, for thelr advice and very useful auggeetions during a nnaber of oolloquia on tbis subject as veil as during diacussions vith th.cn as individuale. I wish to express my aincere appreciation to the Local Authoritieo # tho drairs, üistrict and Village Baads, the officials of the Ministry of Natural Beaources and the färmere in the study area, who co~operated vith me and painstakingly answered ay innumerable queations during the field survsy* special thenlai are due to Hr* J. Lawale, Principal of Niger Baptist College, Minna, the staff of the Federal Kice eaeurch Station, Badeggi and many others for their hospitallty during tho field survey. 1 am espeeially grateful to the ünivoroity of Ibadan on whose seho- larship the study was undertaken and also to the Higerian Institute of Social and äconomic Research who offen«! me a fellowship during the period of zay wrlting up the thesis. My special thanks are UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY also du© to Prof. H.M.A. Onitiri, tho Dlrector of N .I.S .K .K , for hie en~ courasemant and lnvaluable aasistance. flnally, thanks to my wife for hör understandine and aacrifices at all tlnea. 3.0. Adeniyi. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY » X - w m s a u The »ftin focua of the thesis is tho examination of the factors res» ponalble for rural ecanomie development in a pari of the Middle Belt of Nigeria. Th« discuasion is based an the "land surplas" model and the approaoh is to neg&rd populotian dansity and population growth as the independent variables which in their tum are raajor factors dotersdn» ing rural econonic development in tho Kid die Belt of Nigeria, The physical and human onvironraent of the Kiddle Belt and its changing econoiay fron that of a lagging to a groving zono are discussed. Th« dis- tribution, demographie and cultural characteristioe of the population in different parta of the study area are ahoim to have influenced the socio» econonic Organisation of agricultural land» labour*land use and crops grown. lt is shown that the Bise of tho population and dansity is below the Cri- tlcal Population üansity vhich the present System of laxsä use can Support. The agricultural econoiay and new t/ends in agricultural production are discussod and it is shown that the production of food crops in the Middle Belt serres as an 'engine of growth* (as does the production of export crops in other parts of Nigeria) in the Higerian econoiay as it is a raajor source of food supply for the growing population and urbanization in Nigeria. The increasing Integration of the Higerian econoiay «hieb has lod to a greater development of the internal ex change econcmy in the country is shown to have aided the increasing cormorcialioation of food crop production in the area. In addition, population movonents into the area has lad to increased agricultural production« These dovelopments have tumed the Middle Belt froa a lagglng to a ’frontier zone*. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY - Xi - In Order to realize the potentialities of the Middle Belt in Nigeria t a maaber of eug-estiona are made for the further developaent of the rural econocy of the aroa. c UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY > w s l 7 fiLm iaam i w auum . Th» objective of this study is to exastine the process of rural economic development in a part of the Kiddle Belt of Nigeria vithin the context of the "land surplus" modal. The area chosen for this study ln Bi da and Hinna Division» of Niger Provinoe (Pig 1a.) and covere an area of 15*447 square miloa (400,007square kilometera), It consiota of the six Local Authority areas of Abuja, Agaie, Bida, Eagara, Lapai and Hinna in the north-Western State (Fig» 1b). Of all the Provinces in Nigeria» Niger Provinoe has the least overall density of population (25 persona te the square stile in 1952)» though oontrasts abound in population distri- bution and density vithin the area. Within the study area are represented the broad pattorns of the human and phyaical environment of the Middle Belt of Nigeria* and thus provides the basis for the study of the rural economic development of the Belt. In order to be &ble to widerstand the setting vithin uhich this study is basod a brief survey of the phyaical and human environment aß well as of the econooy of the Middle Belt in Nigeria is made» folloved by a brief dißcussion of ita changing econoay. M X The earliest reoord of the tora *Middle Belt* in NigeriasLiteratur# has not been established with certainty» but Ford# and Scott (1946» 24 & 10Ö-19O) uaed the term in describing the central sone in Nigeria where th© econony is based rninly on food crop production and is qulte distinet fron those of the Forest and Sudan zonea where export crop production is of greater importance. 'There is» however» no doubt that the tera had been UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig 1 a- THE MIDDLE BELT SHOWING THE STUDY AREA. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 ln use earlier ln the country as aany writers have booa using it in associatian with the central sone in Nigeria charactorized by low popula- tion densities, extensive unoccupied area, multiplicity of tribes and camparatively low rural economic development. In Nigeria, the extont of the Middle Belt has not been clearly defined though Buchanan (1953*451) listed administrative provinoes vhich he regarded as the "Middle Belt Provinoes*. These were the oix admin­ istrative Provinoes of Ädamawa» Benue, Ilarin, Kabba, Niger and Plateau, to which list Church (1957*471) added Southern Sarin Province. The Provinoial delimitation 1s sliown in füg. 2 and they roughly coincide with the "Pagan Provinoes" in the old Northern Nigerian Administration. In the 1950*8 howver, the term Middle Belt beoome of political significance in the slx Middle Belt Provinoes of th© Northern Region in Nigeria. Thia led to the formtion of a political pnrty in 1955 - th© "United Middle Belt Congress" comitted to the creation of a "Middle Belt imgion" out of the fbnmer Northern Region of Nigeria. The party did not, hovever, achieve its political objective and in this regard it has been obeerved timt the Middle Belt coacept1 has no basis within the politioal geography of Nigeria (Prescott, J.R.Y. I960 and Agboola, 3.A. 196t). Climate In defining the Middle Belt of Nigeria, Brauner and Uallser (i960) 1. For further disoussion of the Middle Belt concept, aee (1) Agboola, S.A. (1962), "Some Geograph!cal influences on the Population and .conoiny of the Middle Belt >.eet of the Niger", ünpubliahcd M.A. Thesis, (London), Ghaptor (hie, pp. 1*30« (2) ßleave, H.B. and Nhite, H.P. (1969), "The ,eot African Middle Belt* iüvironaental Fast or Ooographer’s Slotion?" Oeogranhical iteview. Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 123-139. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY F ig 1b- THE STUDY AREA LOCAL AUTHORITY AND ADMINfSTR ATIVE BOUNDARIES UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY aad Pullan (1962) atterapted to give a cliraatio definition and aaaerted that it is not a zone of traneition tout a distinct aon© in Nigeria. They su*gested that th© length of the dry season is the primary basis of th© definition. Church (1957* 56) suggested that th© Middle Belt largely coincideo with th© Southern aavannah climate vith the longth of the dry season vnrying from 4 to 5 montha, a vide durnal ränge of teraperatur© and a mean relative humidity which vurles between 50/- and 80^, hut in the dry season is lass than 70$ at 9.00 hours. Bramner and .»aUcer (i960) suggested a dry season of 140 or lese days for the northem botmdary, and for the Southern a dry season of more than 80 days with a mean annual rainfall of 55 inches. Pullan (1962) reviev?ed the work of Church and Bramner and Walker and agreed vith thera that longth of the dry season is the prinary basis for deflning the Middle Belt» ac he eonsidered this the most important factor in the cllmatio lifo of the Middle Belt. In eeeking a rational olimatie definition, he incorporated three olimatie factoro of the lenjth of the dry season, its rang© and Variation as well as its mean vnluea. He therefor© concluded that "the Middle Belt is that aroa in Nigeria in which over a period of years, 50$ or more of all the years have a dry s#ason of 4 or 5 montha duxation*. He added that "ignoring hi# plateau and mountain ranges the rainfall over the Middle Belt varies from 55 inches in the south-east to 40 inches in the eouth-west" and that the Southern limit "never has all mcmths over 55/- relative humidity (ühurch gave 70$) while the northem bounctary is where the re are 6 montha vith 55/' relative humidity", This delimited bouadary of the Middle Belt ia shown in Slg. 2. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig 2. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY U ä iü .,1 * M iiL m fS M t ,1,3g(M2 Kaan Annual Absolute tainfall % lears of Station Latitude Altitude fio« of lears aiafall in 1950-63 Double Peak in feet of tecords inchos 1950-63 Max. Hin. Hokwa 9°13* 500 t1 42.97 52.81 29.61 85 Bida 9°06* 473 33 48.42 52.36 31.55 78 , Minna 9°37* 346 45 52.62 62.25 39.43 64 Abuja 9°10* 1600 13 67.50 74.06 53.40 54 Diko 9°15* 1775 14 60.73 68.87 49.84 50 Jouroes: British «ost üfrican and Kigorlan M*teorolodcal Services. (1) axwual Jumary of Observutiona, 1962» (2) Annual Jumaary of ubservutiona. 1950 - 1963* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5 Th© ©utstanding characteristic of th© climate of the Middle Belt is its variability - particularly of its ra infall in terms of onset, distrlbution and amount. For exanple, Table One^ shovs the raean annual rainfall and absolute rainfall (maximua and minimum) 1950 - 1963 in inches for five stations in th© study area. The aean annual rainfall varies from 42.97 inches at Kokua to 67.50 inches at Abuja. The differences betvoen taaxiaum and minimum valuea of 20 inches and over are the rule rather thaa tho ctrceptloa in the study area. The me an auathly rainfall and the aean number of rain days (Tables 2 and 3) Show a gradual inerease during th© beginning of the rains from March/April to July «feile they are at their hi feast in September. This doeo not, hovcver, show tho variability in the rainfall regime, The time of onset of the rains is usually late in Harch but this is most irregulär. For instance, Kokwa, Bida, Abu ja and Diko had no rainfall in March 1950. ln Ilarch 1958, Kokwa had 0.5 inchj Abuja had 0.9 inch| Diko had 1.98 Inch, and Bida had 2.63 inches. Tho end of the rains is also irregulär, and it is not unusual for Seme atations to have over 2 inches of rainfall in November, as at Diko - 3.6 inches in 1958 «feil© even in Octobor there may be littls or no rainfall as at Bida vhera on ly 0.6 inch rain feil in Octobor 1959. The variability and erratic nature of rainfhll distrlbution in the Middle Belt constitute probleas to agricultur© in the Middle Belt and 1 1. Souroes used for diccussing the climate of the study area are the Monthly Weathar Sports of the British West African and riigerian Meteorolocical Services for the period 1950 * 1963 and the Annual öuamary of Observations, 1962 by the Higerian Metsorological Services. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6 TABLS2» «KAU 8QKTHLY KAIBgALL M UMHKa Honths Hokwa Bi da Minna Abuja Di ko January 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 ftebruary 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.4 Karoh 1.1 1.1 0.7 1.7 1.0 April 3.6 3.0 2.3 3.2 3.6 Kay. 5.2 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.5 June 7.8 7.7 7.2 7.2 7.3 July 6.7 7.8 3.2 11.8 9.2 Ättfmst 5.6 3.2 10.5 12.2 10.3 September 9.7 10.1 11.7 14.4 14.1 Gctober 3.9 3.9 5.6 8.6 8.1 November 0.4 0.3 0.4 ■ 1.5 1.1 Iteoember 0.1 O.t 0.1 0.3 0.2 Total 44.4 48.6 52.6 67.2 60.9 Source i Nigeria» Keteorologlcal Services. Äet. lote No. 4* Sean Monthly Rainftill and Haindays. Revised to 1960| Lage» 1965« UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4M 7 u z L ä 'ii M m I HUHftü; Konths Mokwa Bida Minna Abuja Di ko January 0 1 0 0 0 Pabruary 1 1 0 1 1 Karch 3 3 3 4 3 April 6 6 6 7 8 J«ay 10 9 13 12 13 June 13 14 15 14 16 July 12 14 17 13 20 August 12 13 19 IQ 13 September 17 13 21 20 23 Oetober 9 10 15 16 13 November 1 1 2 3 4 Deceraber 0 0 0 1 0 Sources Ni^rian Eeteorelogical Services. Siet* Hot© No* 4» Hean Bonthly rainfall and Jtaindaya* Rerrieed to I960* Lagos 1965* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ft 8 underlie the aeed for supplenenting mißfall «Ith Irrigation in the dry seaaon. This need ia further reinforced by the fact that in & diVision of Nigeria into regions based on tho relatioashlp between the moan annual «ater sorplua and the stean annual water defieisacy, the «ater deficit of this area exceeda surplus by nearly 500 ma. The Middle Belt ia regarded aa an area ofl'ering posaibilities for modern Irrigation development (Garnier, B.J. 1957* 354), and aaong the ne« trends in rural economic development of the area ia the establishnent of small scale Irrigation Schemas. Vegetation The Vegetation of the Middle Belt refleeta its clinate and it ia aasooiatad vith the Guinea savanna of the Southern savanna climatio aone. Keay (1949 h 1959) diatinguiahod two Vegetation belts in the Guinea savanna - the Southern Guinea aone and the northem Guinea eene and applied the term "derived savanna** to the aouth>.rn part of the Southern Guinea zone. Inapite of this subdiVision, Gleave, K.B. and White, H.P. (1969* 127) agree «ith Buchanan (1953* 452) that whatever floristio coatrasts exist ,*batvean the northoxn and Southern Guinea oavarmas, the Guinea zone shovs a high degrae of geographioal unity”. Keay (1949) described tho typical Vegetation of the Guinea sone as "open savanna woodlaad" vith deciduoue broad-laaved troes, occasionally forming denae Stands but nore unually relatively open vith a ground Vegetation of tall graas (5 to 10 fest high). The troes have short boles and broad leaves and grov up to 40 to 50 feet high, but are not suitnble for savn tiabor. Faraing and grass fires also fcend to make the Vegetation UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 9 more open and to taodify tho floristio compo&itian. Although local variations in soll condition3 tend to modify tho Vegetation, th» Guinea aavanna Vegetation ia readily distlngulshable and forma tho clinax Vegetation of tho Kiddle Belt, The re lief of the study area ia dominated by two mein underlying geological strucrturei (i) the Cretaceous sandstones which underly tho Southern and central parts and on which the Niger flood plains have bcen devoloped; and (ii) the Pre-caabrian Basement Complex which inoludoa a variety of igneous and raetamorphic rocke and which haa given riee to isolated hi 11s in the iiorthem and Mastem parts of the area. On the former have been doveloped the Hupe plains underlain by the Hupe sand- stonos and by the youner aedimontary rocke of the valleys of the Niger and its tributailes. Around these &re found gently rolling and undulating plains of varying width, flankod by flat topped aaadstone hilla. The Pre-cambrian Basement Complex is aade up of older granltea, metasediaents and qu&rtsites, wherein the differences in reoiotance to weatherlng and eroßion have given rise to considerable Variation«? in the relief featuree. f ig , 3 ehow® the throe broad relief reglona » the Niger flood Plains, the Hupe Plains and the Mastern High Plains, into which the study area could be divided. The characteristics of the solle of the study area are in the min determined by the nature of the underlying rocks. The effects of goology and topography on the aoils are very strlking and these to a great extent have limited the climatic effects which a&y be present. The solle are UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fi g 3- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY iö broadly uniform and are in the m in "sedimcntary* apart fron» thoso of the river valleys and flood piaina. Iha aoils can hoeever bo claasified into three min unitsi (Hg, 4) 1. Äivar Alluvium öoil Unit 2. Hupe Plains and bcarps boil Unit 3. The Basement Complex boil Unit .lvor Alluvium boil Unit. The rlver Niger and its tributaries have given rise to a conaiderablo area of ooaplox alluvial aoils along their flood piaina, As the Niger and itß tributaries overflow their banks annually, they lay dom a ayetem of loamy and clayey oodinents over the flood piaina aa wall aa on the flat terraces which rlse 6 to 15 feet above the present flood level, The rlver alluvium soll m i t is undcrlaid by Cretaosous sandstones but through deposition by the rivors, the alluvial soils noe ahow a great variety over short dis tan oe 3 both horiaontally and vertically. Hi'Tina (i960* 20) recognised eight aain soll serlös in the rlver alluvium soll mit and theso Vary from rlver level solle to rlver basin and eandy terrace soils to misoellaneous alluvial fnna, colluvial slopes, sand banks and aud flats vith fine or aoderately fine textured hydro- aorphic solle, The rlver alluvium soll unit is of oajor agricultural Importance and on both sides of the Niger is used for growia such orops as rice, sugar eane, sweot potato, onion, pepper and othor vegetables. 1t has hoen estiaated that over 600,000 acres of land are available for both oatate and peasaat agrlculture in this soll unit area (Balfour Beaty and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5-00 5-30' ~~6I-00' 6-30' ~l7--00-' “7I*-30-' 10 -30- o o RIVER ALLUVIUM SOIL UNIT -10*30' (C om plex A lluv ia l f lo o d p la in s o o o o| com prised of sands silts 8. c lays) NUPE PLAINS & SCARPS SCHL UNH (S a nd s ton e p la ins w ith remnants o f Iro n s to n e capped h ills ) 10-00- BASEMENT COMPLEX UNIT — 10-00 (D isse c te d u n d u la tin g p la ins w ith ironpan p n d some resis ta n t h ill bosses & Inselbergs ) i9-30 9#-0Ö(- — 9-00 — 8-30 20 10 0 20 11111111111 1 5*00' 5-30' 6*0 0 ' 6* 30' 7-00 7-30' F ig U . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY HEJJSCO 1961, Vi 88 - 90). Proupects for comercial production of sugar oane» rice and Jute are very high in thie soll uait area. The area is hovever spareoly populated and lese than Vf» of the total area is utilized for agricultural purpoaes. The präsent sparae population is however an advantage in that such land is available for the development of «state agrlculture as shown by the Bacita Katate on the south bank of the Higer. , aal.aiBaiag.J94l Jfrit These cover the western and central parts of the study area and is found in such areas as Mokva, Kutigi, flida, Leau and Agaie. The soila are red ferralitic soils and are generally deep with littlo horizontal differentiatien» though vith a high organio matter coatent. The re is little or no reserve of weathorable minorals and generally» considerabl© qaantities of free iron «nd alusiniuca oxides are present. The parent material is derived fron a oo&rse sandstone (vith occasional 3hale beds) of Cretaceous or iSocena age. Tomlinson» P.H. (1965 * 59) put forward the viev that the soils wer© probably formed under a climate aore humid than the present while the resultaat profile characteristics have persiated. The characteristic soll of this unit is a dark grey silty sand» 6 to 15 inchos deep. It is usually vaterlogged during the rainy season» and is developed upon typical flat sheets of impervious iron-etonea. The surface is normally strevm vith boulders and the bare ironatone sheets are exposed in places, Generally the upper part of the shoet is broken and irregulär so that patohes of reddiah gravelly loan occur oa top of the hi11a (Eiggins» G.K.» I960: 13). ihren though the soils are rather uniform in colour» there are significant Variation© in texture from place UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 12 to place. fbr exaaple at Kokwa, the soil bas a noticeable allt content and tends to form an impervious "pie-cruet" on the surfaco under the Impact of rain drops vhile the sandy clayey »oila arouod Bida do not. The climate and soll pemit a vartEty of crope to be grown and crops include yams, guinea com, malze, groundnuts, co ton and evert rice especially in the fadaman. The fair ly uniform physioal properties and Isvel plain natura of the soila aak» thera suitable for large-ecalo raechaaized cultivatlon, though the oporadic occurrence of ironstone may limit its suttaMlity in place«. Thie soll mit covere the northem and eastem parts of the study area and the soll« are ferruginous tropical soll« developed on cryetalline aeid rooks. Apart fron the river alluvium eoil unit, this eoil mit ia the oost variable of the solle of Northem Nigeria. The parent rooks give rise to a large varlety of eoil types within short diutancea. The varyiag topography has also given rise to a well recognisable soll oatena. The upper alope solle consiat of «me 3 to 6 Inches of browa humid sand or loaay sand gradually verging into ysllowiah red loams. The middle alope soils in general contain a high content of red and black hard iron and oanganese ccncretions. ln some casea the concretiona are cemented to form a compact but root-penetrablo pan. The catena is completed by collurial and alluvial soils of the lower elopes and valley boitons which are essentially very pale brown or light grey Sands. (Higgine, G.H. I960* 32). The productivity of tbeee soils is variable and a trf.de ränge of crops is fomdt cotton in Alawa and Pandogari areasf yaras» gulnoa com, acha UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and beninseed around Abu ja. The chief food cropo aro ya», guinea com, and aillet. The characteristics of the soils of the study area have been given a fairly dotailed discuseion ln view of the suppoaod ’poverty* of Hiddle Belt soils as portrayed by some writers. It haß been claimed that the "skaletal nature of aost of the (Middle Belt) aoils seriously reduce their usefulness to agriculture" (kgboola, 3.A* 1962* 56) | vhile the soils are also supposed to "have generally lower nutrieat Status" (Braaner, Ht 1962). It ia feit that these are praaature judgeaents of Middle Belt soils as they are in no deaonatrable way aore 'nkoletal' than either of the solle of the -’oreat and Sudan zonoa. Soll fertility investigations in the Middle Belt of Nigeria have ohown with experiasnta that "with adequate organic oanuro, or with fertiüaer, continuoua croppiag can be sustained without lose of fertility" (Wataom, Ü.A* and Goldsworthy, P.K. 1965* 502). Thia is quite applicable to any soll unit in Nigeria and rauch research work into the fertility and quality of Middle Belt soils needs to be dorre ris-ft-vis soils in other parts of Nigeria befere a aeaningful concluoion can bo nade as to their 'poverty' , 'ekeletal nature* or 'low nutrient status'. m jw u w M The population dunaity aap of Nigeria (Fig. 5) clearly reveals a relatively 3parsely populated area in the central zone of the country, roughly coincident with the Southern Guinea Aavarma Zone. Here population denaities are lower than these of the forest and Sudan zoacs. In 1952 the owerall population deaaity per square alle for Nigeria was 34, while UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 14 for the three zones of Nigeria the figurea were 181 for the Forest zone, 75*3 for the Sudan zone and 41*6 for the Middle Seit. The Middle Belt covors 3T/1 of the area Of Nigeria but has only about 16$ of hör total Population» while the Forest and Sudan sones covor 21; and 4Z respeo» tively of hör area and have 46/- and ¥&> of hör population respectively. In the Forest and Sudan sones of Nigeria thore are large areas of high populaticm densitieo. In the Forest zone of Mastern Nigeria high population densities per square mile wore recorded in such Divisions as Orlu (873). Okigwi (754), üyo (669), Calabar (666), Eket (494) and Aid» (439). In the Forest sones of Western Nigeria high population densities per square mile wer© also reoorded in such Mvisions as* Oshun (371), Ibadan (359) and Ife (265). In the Sudan aone high population densities are found centred around Kano with densities varyinr fron 157 in Katsina Division to over 500 persons per square alle. In the Kano Cloae-Jotiled zone densities in the viciaity of Kano are orar 650 per square alle (Hortimore, K.J. and Wilson, J. 1965* 5)« Tbere are howevor areas with lower population densities in both the Forest and Sudan zones, as can be seen in parts of the dense min forest zone of Ogo^a and Galabar Provincea * »her« densities Vary fron 144 to 146 per square olle, and in Benin Division where the density of 73 to the square mile is below the national average of 34. In the Sudan zone population density is low in Bauchi and Bomu Provinces where the oean densities are 55 and 35 to the square mile respectively. In splte of these low density areas and the faot that the population densities are not uniform within administrative dlvisions, both the Forest and Sudan zones in Nigeria are areas of high population UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ♦ 15 densities» Low population densities per square alle are typicnl of the Middle Belt of Nigeria with densities as low aa 7 in Borgu Diviaion, 19 in Kontagora Division, 24 in Muri Division and 25 in Minna Division» In fact, the lowst Divisional and Provincial population densities per square raile in Nigeria are recorded in the Middle Belt in Borgu Division (7) and Niger Province (25) respoctively. There are, however, 3oae areaa in the Middle Belt with localised high densities as in Ilorin Diviaion with an overall density of 151 peraons per square alle; Igblrra Division 157# Jos Diviaion 166 and Tiv Division 75 peraons per square nile» These localised "population Islands" (öleave, M.B. and «Oute, H.P. 1969* 151) oannot be oompared either in extent or in numbers with the population concentration in both the Forest and Sudan zones in Nigeria» In fact, they are fewer and skalier and oannot be regarded as "core areas* in the sense in which the population conoentrations of the Forest and Sudan zones are so regarded (Buohanan# K.H. and Pugh, J»C» 1955* 58)» Most of the population Islands are oonfinod to aountainoua areas such as the Jos Plateau wfaere physio- graphy has provided refuge for small tribes, - and to areas around the ' Hupe and Yoruba Xingdosio which offered protection during the slave raids of the 19th Century» * ; Other human eontrasts between the Middle Belt and other zones of Nigeria are the tribal and religiowa diversity of the population. The Middle Belt is an area of small tribal groups. Table 4(a) ahows that groups of small tribes form about 90/'- of its total population in oontrast to the Sudan zone where groups of small tribes form leas than 50/- of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 16 r.-. m m j> m m , iw # # . m m . m ä £ M m m .,M M m u k Middle Belt Süden Zone 1931 1952 1931 1952 Hausa 4.4 5.3 44.9 46.5 Fulaai 5.9 5.6 27.2 23.8 Others 89.7 89.1 27.9 29.7 (b) Religion Religioua Croup Middle Belt (*) Sudan Zone ( f ) 1931 1952 1931 1952 Moslems 21.7 28.8 87.1 90.0 Christians 1.4 7*5 0.1 0.1 Tradltional Religion 76.9 63.7 12.8 9.9 lource x Population Gansus of Northern Nigeria» 1931 and 1932« population. The 1931 population consus listod 133 tribal groupe in the Middle Belt with aany of the tribes fever than 300 peopla. For exam ple, in Niger Province, the Rubu nunbered 360; the Xakanda 472 in both Niger and Kabba Provincesf the Hoaa and Doma in Adaa&m Province vere 216 and 263 respectively, while the Chip and the Chokoba in Plateau Province vere 226 and 377 respectively. SLrto^reene (1950* 2) obaervod «hat a total of 230 tribes vere listed in Adamawa Province with a population of t,181,164 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY to i. 17 ln 1952. Of these, he indicated that only three - the Chaaba, Higl and Wuauye had a mmorical strength of over 50,OCX). Tahle 4(b) ahows the contrast ln relirlon bet wen the Middle Belt and the Sudan zone. About 90>' of the population ln the Sudan sone profess Islam ln contrast to the Middle Belt obere Moslems form lass than 30/ of the population and about 7Qfr belang to the fraditional roligion (henoe the tera *Pagan Brovincca*). Christianity also gained greater foothold in the Middle Belt where 7,5P of the population ambraeed Chriati&nity by 1952 in contrast to 0.1/4 in the Sudan zone. y&e In sS tS LM , The fragraentary nature of the tribes and roligioua coapooition of the population, rosulted in the lack of any powerful or well orgunised political adtainia trat Ion which could succeesfully ward off outßide attacks. Thio laid the Middle Belt wide open to the alave raiders of the raoslea Hausa-Fulani Sfapires of the Sudan zone during the Jihad, The Jihad, which originally started with the noble idea of spreading Islam, later degenerated into nlave raldin.fr. It led to nass depopulation of the Middle Belt population aa "obere ther© m s no pre-existing mohammedaniam to pave the way for the Jihad and aesist it by civil war, the reeult of the Fulani conquest has been Wholesale depopulation". Äany towns, vi llages and extensive areas of Settlement wert oospletely destroyed and "whole districts carried into slavery, or driven to tak® refuge in mountain fastnessea". (Burdon, J.A. 1904t 644). In Adamawa area, Kirk- Greene Claims that the passim of the ühlani for slave raiding had denuded the country of ita population and that "the truly awful d.solation and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 18 dßstruction of life cauoed by this alav»—raidiag ia appareat todayi anormous tracts of Land have gone out of eultivation and oae oonstantly 3ö©3 the ruina of towns nov ovorrown with jungle" (Mrk-Greeae, A.M.H. 1958t 25). The Situation with regard to the depopulation of tho Hiddle Belt ia suocinctly given in the Aanual Colonial Deport for Northern Nigeria 1900-01 which deocribed tho area around Kontagora aß "denuded of all ite inhabitante exeept old men and babies". The original tonn of Bi min\ completely deatroyed by the äeair of Kontagora during hia slav© raids» is still a visible evidence of the extent of nass ctestruction which took placo in the Hiddle Belt. The Deport went on further to record that Nasarawa area» "a onoe fertile and populous country" had only Hthe reaains and ruins of large and totally deserted towns”, ln addition it was recorded that "the re is probat ly no part of the hark contiaent in which the worat form of slave raxding still exist to so terrible an extent .... nor axe they even provident of their huating grouad, for thooe who are useless as slaves are killed in large nunbers, the villages buxnt, and the fugitives left to starve in the bush” (Orr, G.w.J, 1911* 100). 1t is evident fron this brief historicsl survey that the present sparse population of the Hiddle Belt to a great extent resulted fron the ruthless slave-raiding which went on until the end of the 19th Century« The population was dieperoed all over the Fulani lüairatee of the Sudan sone as slaves» and can still be recognised in somo Efedrates as in the Close-oettled Zone of Kano Sairate» where "the third eleaent (of the population) consisted of the members of a nusnber of different Hiddle Belt UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY •» 19 tribes brought to thö Hausa States as slaves" (lortisore, M.J* and Wilson, J . 1965* 5)* Many parts of tho Middle Belt are now lese densely populated than they vere a Century ago and so the hiatorical factor has contributed in no small measure to tho sparse population and the present short age of huran resources to develop the resources of the aroa. W U W M J B J W & The Middle Belt economy of Kigeria is distinct fron tho so of the Forest and Sudan zones aa the Middle Belt is an area where agricultural production for export is of limited significance* The eophasis is on food crop production, and both the root crops of the forest aone and the grain crops of the Sudan zone can be succesafully grom, Taetse infesta- tion of the Middle Belt böserer prec ludea the beit fron the suooessful rearing of eattle which onriches the economy of the Sudan zone. Th® absence of major export crops in the Middle Belt has beon noted by nany worfcers as the major charaoteristlc of its eccaomy. Buehanan (1953» 455) noted that leos than one-tenth of the fo rm t N orthern Regiom’s exporta wäre derived from the Middle Belt in 1949-49* Slgs. 6 and 7 show that the Middle Belt fares poorly in the agricultural export economy of Nigeria. In terma of both agricultural export incoae per caplta and per square alle, the Middle Belt lags behänd both the Forest and Sudan zones, The Situation with export crops production still remins the saae as in 1966/67 export crop year, in that the Middle Belt which covers nearly half of the area of the t'orm r Northern kogion produoed only 9.36 of the tonaage of the kegion's export orop exports. The Middle Belt had an arerage of 2.15 tona per square alle and 104 lbs. per head of its UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig 6 AG RICULTU RAL EXPORT PRODUCTION 1 f U n d e r 0 - 5 0 - 5 - 2 - 4 9 2 5 - 4 9 5-0 - 9-9 10 a n d over UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY population while the Sudan sone had an average of 6,9t tona per square solle and 215 lb s , per haad o f i t s population (liigeria* 1963)* The economy o f the Middle Belt i s aain ly based on food cropa production. The grain s, root cropa and fru it s o f both the Forest and Sudan zones are grovn in the Middle Belt quite in oxcesa o f the require­ inen t s o f the lo ca l population. Such grains as guinea corn (Sorghum), a i l l e t , aa ize , ach&, tanba and rice aro grown in large quantities while root orops such as yaaa, c ’.ssava, sweet potatoes, banbra nuts and onions aro also produced. Other cropa which are grown are sugar cane, tobacco, tonatoes, pepper, cowpeas, water raolon and fru it s such afl taangoes and oranges, The cropa are grown in large quantities and aent into both the Forest and Sudan zones where markets are provided by the increasing population and urbanized centroa, llany Middle Belt faraers Show eonsdous preference for food crop production in view o f i t s p ro fita b ility . In fa c t , i t w ill be sbown la te r in th is study that farmers re a lise much aore money from food orops produced per unit area than fron export crop production, The report o f the Investigation into the regional and in ter­ regional aovements of lo ca lly grown fo o d stu ffs in Northern H igeria in 1957 revealed that thouaaada o f tona o f food cropa are produced in the Middle B e lt Provinces and sent to other parts o f ffigeria (Baldwin, X.D.S. 1957), For example, a f te r providing fo r seed, food consunption, loasea and wastage the report showed that the Middle Belt Provinces had a surplus o f 101,000 tons o f g ra in s, 224,000 tone of yams and 2,995 tons o f r ice while the Sudan Provinces showed deficiency in these food crops. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY F ig 7. AG RICULTU RAL EXPORT PRODUCTION J L. r * U n d e r 10 10 — 4 9 50 — 2 4 9 20 0 40 80 120 M iles . 2 5 0 - 4 9 9 5 0 0 & Over UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Most writers on the liiddle Belt have laid empfcaaia on tbe negativ© nature of tbe Belt with regard to tbe very littlo empört crops produced* without taking into conaideration that auch of tbe food consuaed by tbe population in the irrest and Sudsei zones com3 fron. tbe Middle Belt, Tbe fact that food crops are produced in the Middle Belt an oppoaed to export cropa does not autaraatically mean that it io a negative beit in the Hlgerian eeonoray. ln fact, there io a sonne in uhich the liiddle Belt can be regarded as tbe "granary" of Nigeria when oae takea into considera- tion the increasing voluae of food orops sant to other parts of Nigeria from tbe Middle Belt« In spite of ite increasing production of food cropa tbe Middle Belt suffered in the past fron processlng and storage problems, poor aarketing and inadequate transportation facilitios in tbe aale of the food crops produced* Unlik» tbe forest and Sudan zoaea, uhere tbe lange Population concentrationa provide marketa for food cropa locally produced, tbe Middle Belt euffero from laek of nearby aarketa, fron inadequate roada and frota unorganiaed Marketing, ihile tbe Marketing Boards provide guaraateed markets fron yoar to year for crope of tbe Sbreot and Sudan sones, markets for tbe food crops of tbe Middle Belt are not similarly guaranteed* As discuaaed in cbapter 8y tbe Middle Belt farm produce is subjectod to high aarketing costs, irregulär deaand and fluctuating prices, ‘konsequently, the faraer receives low prices for bis farm produce and this aots as a diaincontivo to further production* Tbe pattems of tranaportation in tbe Middle Belt olearly ahow tbe low level of ita econoay in the past. Tbe seaaonally opemted transport UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY fleets on the Rigor and Beaue rivers and the railaay systoa wo re mainly dosigned for the evacuatioa of bulky exports froa the iudan sone and the iaportation of aaaufaetured goodeintü the Budan aono. Feeder roada for the railnya are more poorly developed than In the Buden zorte» so that seither the railway nor river aysteas bare appreciable effeot on the local econoay. Binilarly» the fev good roada in the Middle Belt are mainly trunk routes that connect the Sudan zone with the forest zone and are lacking in most cases, and apart from thoae in parts of Plateau and Ilorin Provinces, they are poorly Integrated and becone iiapassable during the rainy aeaaon. For example, in 1969* the study area covering an area of 15*312 square niles had only 1,025 alles of all types of notor roada giving an average of 1 adle for every 16 square alles, This ia in contrast to Lano Province which, with an area of 16*560 square alles had 1,829 alles of all typeo ©f aotor roada giving an average of 1 alle for e ve ry 9 square alles The lack of draught aaisals as a result of trypanosomiasis infectlon further adda to the problcms of transportatlon ln the Middle Belt, This poor development of traneportatioa faoilitiea is regarded aa resulting in r,a vicious circle in ddch lack of revenue haa lad to inadequate comaimications and these in turn to a strangling of the economic development that alone could provide revenue "(Buchanaa* K,H, 1955* 473). The presence of tsetse flies in the Middle Belt (espocially 1# ibr the study area edles of roado were obtained fron the Ministry of 'rforks, the Local Authoritiea and maaaureaent of road niles on aaps. Road mileages in Kano Province wore obtained fron fable 169 of ltorth.a Hl-erla Statistical Toartook. 1966, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 23 Glosslnapalpalis, Goaorbitans and Gitachinoidea) causea not oaly sleeping sicknese in huma boinga but also trypanosoaiasis in cattlo, Aa Gleave and White (1969* 129) have noted, the Guinea savanna Vegetation offer a oore favounable envircment for the tsetee fly tlxw the thorny treos of the Sudan zone, ln the past, whole districts wer© abandoned bocaus® of toetso infestatiou (Glover, P,S. 1961* 65-66). Sattle* horses and other draught aniiaals eaa be rearad in the Sudan zono, but tkey canaot be auocessfully reared in the Uiddle Belt. Apart fron the hi^hland g ra z iö s areas of Jos Plateau and Adanava, the Middle Belt eccnoay is not eariohod by the preseaoe of caitle, Of the 4*492,963 sattle in the fonaer Morthsra iiegiön in 1965# the Middle Belt had only 677,173 vhich is just 1g£ of the total (Sigarlai 1967). The economic iapücatioaa of toctae infestation canaot bo over-empha sized. Vast tracts of potential graziag laad romain uaused} mixed farsiag is linitod and the peaaant faraoar suffera fron autritional deficiencieo as a result of lack of ailk aad animal protein# liis hoalth is also affeoted by aleeping sicknees and hio eapacity for high productivity is thus adversely affeoted, The faot that druught anirnla canaot bo k»pt also woraeua the alre&dy poor transportablen f cilitios, and the ovacuation of farm proüuee has to depend cm huoaa porterags, 2 M J 3 a « a a & M o u k l M . J ä a M M k L ä d k The diacusaion of the position of the Middle Belt in the phyaical, hussa and economic life of Nigeria xweala that the Middle Belt has a distiactive environmont uith recogni-sablo problcros of development, It is also a *frontior Zone* whose agricultural and mineral peioatiaHties have been little explored, Its problems of development result fron a coabinatio» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 24 of physical aad human factors, but pr1 oant o f ffarttt «ad IteUae d lstr ic to GS uniahabitod estpeano o f land oopnrataa anothar popnlation ecncGnix&ticaa o f K&fln»K0r© tr ib a l aittLlftr dLfltrtbutlan. pattem® ar® fcuod in otbor parts o f tho Klddlo Holt to tho -cuth o f tho Siger tebaro largo oapaasoe o f unocourded land separate «no trib e fron tho other Ugboola» 3#A# 1963t 292)» ÜB €®c«ptioa to th is i s hoiam r found in oettlo&esits around Abujo town tdwre Owari, Î oMSecro and Hansa o f i&waa (Zorla) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY orlfiin occupy tli© ea» settloBasat», tfcough. the different trifcüi ©lesacsit» 11v » ix. «sjWiT̂ t« tp&rteni ©r «Krds of the sottlaeaito tu« *t Gm^jalade* Settascwete is thea© diatricte ave larc.«* teea ttaa of tho lov denaity dietrlete though tkoy axe net a# clösaiy epaceä ae tiwu* cC te» tdlSh dssülty districtc, 2s thee© düstrictö a » feuad 20 eeitleöeatiJ tiith aiw 2,000 poople «ad I? ©eiilcsaesta «Ith ay b&eed es cuasarcial produetion of food crops har« doreloped ln thö&a districia ulte mdorato popal&tion rfanöity ts oestrast to tfco liolriets of relaUvoly apareo population* amsüfilto llm & tr JM & ä & iä . iupalatioa ö a m itia a vdtfcia high populatiar. dauaity mstricte raage betaois 51 aad @5 poroosa per sqtiars all» ,m«i ar* fewatd in tho tfcroe äutrieta aurrouadia** the Sû s» o&pital of Bida to the oaat of nitrar Saduos kraus ae ‘C^MLadaaa* i&atri&ts, Tbo thre© diatricte of laus* Jlxt& ^äoka «ad Xateha repzoassat the groeteat ooacoutxatie; of populatior. is tee study aroa and o&rxy 21*4« of tee populati«a es Qp of the total laad s m « 2ha thareo dUtricta hatn» dactoitioft of 5t, 00* «ad 84 pareo&s per squart «He «ad ow» fchcir pojttlation oosoastxutiao to the hietcrioal fast of the Fulaal ©öaquoot of üupolaivl. It m e in theee teree diotrleta tfcat tho saia eettlaaoate of tho Fulsni rulrihi wer© fouoded and their mmaamm toasa and rillages bullt, Ju» s rosult UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Mb -4- _ 1 5 6 of th© protection fron «Ist« raids effcrod by th© stabilisier pouor of the PUiani rul©re, the di*triet» ©Oßtiauod i© «ttraot reftigeon i'roa the «res* »ubjoctod t© alave raid©# Hlth * la xe » cansantrsitioa of population and cacuxity of lifo» Agriettlture, crafts and trade devolorod in theee district© and with th© pacifleati.cn of the eoutttry early ln this Century, th© popnlatien cono«atmtion beoaw© stabil!«ed. Hany of th© Alien greupo wh© settlad eitler as alevee or refugsee sm liv® aceng th© Rup© people and in m n y viUages m l tewns in thaae diatrict» are fouad groujc koown by th» m m of &aaxu (prlscaora of war) (XertJba Küpe) Eatiaft and Chart banta. (!«•• liauaa^&uari alavos)* Theo© greupe living in Hupe eountry «re hardly dititAaguishahl© today fron th© peopl© «Buae idtoaa thsy live as thay hav© bocon© asaioailated in speooh and dr©ae (iiadol, i«7* 1942t 20)» 2h© Population diatrlhutian in those datwely populuUd dietrieio ha© soae dlsUugtdshlng oharaatoorLatioa i (i) Population deaaitio© over «xiarsive ar©as am v w y high and «round th© diotsdot baoAgartoni donsiUee of 20D to jOO persona per ©qusro eilo axo attainoo'. This 1© partioularly ohrieus in areaa between. Lern, Bid&, BateggL and Doko» Feixly largo ©sttlosaKte am fomd and it 1s in th«s© dlstriets and the nnighbouxing dieirlcts of Sutigi, K©d© m & Qadegri that settlnRonts with 2,000 or sor© peoplo are ccaacantrated* (ii) fhfc di©tri cts aro oloeely settled, for uncccupied ax»m uro lisltod in ertönt and ovm hill-sid«® m st hoho are occupifd and intencivoly cultiv&tcd» JOrost ü a n r w ar© f«w, and whwre they «Bist they «re snall in araa ms in Jim/oelao and Katcba uiotricts whoio forest rosorvs® cover ©nly 9*9 »quare nilas and 2*3 squore edles repr«ß«ntiag 2£ and 1$ UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY reepeetlvoly of the total lsad surf© cg. In ocntmst to thie, foroot rooenroe in the sparoely populated Mßtriots of 1%kea and klmm ecver 207.2 a-iuare edles and 119 square alles represontin# 13*4^ and 14.lf of thoir total laad rrurfaco roepoctivoly. ( i l l ) The population 1s predordr. n tly ru ra l, diotrlbuted in nusBtxwc v illa d es v ith none o f tho v llla^ es havlnc an» 3.000 people. The Küpe practioe o f foundlng "dauchter sottloaants* oallod tunm> uhlch are «KpatudaDS o f nethen-toens or v tlla g ee furthor holp to epread the populatloo ©ver the landooape. Theos* aro nuar-contimioua oettleafln te. es ano oooo ln Eino a m . alone tho MdaHfcuSeogd^tete and Mda-Uoko- Jlaa roads and a lso alencr tho railway Uno tsm Kataereßl to Katohn. In addltlon. thsre aro farv settlenents or 'ootatee* * of the noMlity, (also oaUed tunmi tho o n large traotc of lond that aro pareollod ent to poopla du» Uv© an thom ae tonaato. Theos tanaa oettlocanta aro ecattorod all ovor Cia-Kadunn and surround 3lda ln a denn holt, aaktnc for intenslvo a-rlcultural uo© of the land. ono of the ooDoequonooe of the Mcjh populatlen dennitlos ia that faially euneraöiip of land. and in aono casoo individual ©taershlp of land, ls the rule. (Thie dovolepraent and ite off© cts cm a^rlculturml devolopoaat aro discusocd in ohaptor 5). 1 notwerk of roada and mrketinc faolUtiee has hoen developcd, sfcich is in aharp ooötract to the altu&tlaa in the sparoely populated OLstriots with ooociunal systen of land owerohlp. fev roads and aarkoto. MwEriarr ftrttam tf fgauldttoa fern tho dloouoadLott o f the populntian d istribu tion o f the study UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY » 58 arm, it has been ahoan that the population donoity ia generally Jo» and tbat the popul&tion distribution ahoi» considorablß response to hiatorlcal factors. Change« in the population distribution bave, how- m r ( been takLng place ln the paat 20 to 30 years &a a reeult of socio- öconoalc factora. As people tead t© eort themselvoB out areally in Order to attaln oi'ficiency in perfoming their roleo as producero and an coonuaaers of goods and Services* the population distribution in the study area ia gradually undorgoing chsmges in roopanse to certain oocio-econoßic factors psrtieularly the gradual devolopnent of nodosa aaw nanift^ W mu» a n d th© iH O IM B iD g a H « m tl o f tb B OCOtltOESy. Th© corapletion of tho coaaatructlon of the railway lineo in th* study area in 1912 - (tho Joî tt-̂ Lanop̂ sâ ln Buna and Jtlaan-haro lineo) sa« the sprlsglng up of amall villagoB almg the railwsy linea. People soved in ftroo tho ontlying Inaecessibl© aroaa to täte© adfwatago of tho tranarportation facilities provided by tho rsllmys. This led to th© dovolopciant of 26 sub-atations ln tho Jobhoi-ĵ nnô arleln Pam llne and 7 aub-etationa in tho Klnna-asro llne and tho stations along tho lineo mich as itakwa, Rinna and Bsdeggl ha«© become aojor centros of popolatiGn concontration and trade. Of groater effoct an« population diotribution in tho study area hos beon the dsfolopaugnt of stotor roads. Almg tho Jobba-Kaduna read, Mok» and partioularly Paadogarl have beoao© na^or centros of population concontration, trade and road-slde Services. Folloviag tho building of o brldg© over the river üasmaan an tho Abu^a-Kotcai-Karifi road, aany ribbcn settlonents sprang up botween ßadalla and Gwagualada t tho UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 59 bridge-polnt* m ich bocaa» a najor aarkart oentre for j a « « n t to th» soath v ie Koton-Karf! and hobe^a. Aiaag the Mde-Itoko-Cia&- Hurogi roads, esny aettlaeeate euch es Euohi WMro (föeaning n*w lö icfcl, an off-eh oet « f M d n tho M U -eide)* Pa «Muke, Kasogi, Kajidodo and XfcnehitagL hw n, beaa foundod nitida the past t«n yeare and thsoo * h«va bacoae aajor oantreo of rice p̂ oduction and «rtrlaßUng» Tb» ocdLatenoe ©f wet©r-«*ys cn Öse rivsre Niger and Katfuna ha® led to the founding of aaay Kode eottlomsata alcng the river banhs* Th» Süd« aro aaltily fiahernen and tnmepertere almg the river coureea «ad her» k» s« the oomowy and « 7 of lifa of the Hede peo- jde tw#^wwMs4iBg tli® dlstrlbutlon et population« The inoreaeing oeamrcialieation of the rural eooacay e t the study area is hevlng an tapset on the populition dlatributicm, The ineraaead cteaond f er sie« in other parte of Nigeria ha* led to m n y faroors settling in the plains and river vnlleys as well a» aear the fafema« that aro farourable to rlce productioa, Irrigation m tm m haare ale© b e m aatabliahad in t7 placea in the riverine areae and the ©ahanee et adeufcdgi and Nadegcl hava baon very euoeeoefdl and eontinue to attraet aere settlers# Thora le therefOre e gradael lemneat e t population fre© the plains to the lovlands porttcultrly to the soutb-eeet and eouth-eaet e t 3&M aleog the fload pleine of River« x&äerat» Niger and Gteko» The produotion ef guiaea 00m and jene in t e and Abuda aroas Ihr the Southern and northem »artoto also «neourage poople to sattle «lang the roade whsre euch producta cnn o&sily b© evaeuaied* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 60 « The develepaant of roads and ineroesing coramorcialisntion of the local econony harret attracted tmdoro and einen fannere fron other parts of Nigeria lnto the study area* Along the na^or xe&ds and mrksting oentrea auch as M etern, Rutigi, Badeggi, Bedko« Gwageaiada and denn oan he to m d Ran» and Xoruba traders free* the Northern and Southern pcrte of Kigeria «ngaged ln tr&dlng ln a^icultural and Importe«! producta* In addltlon» there are Ilauea farmera m m geä ln «nienv eaasava and ougar- eane produotlon in the ?»<**«» aa well as Beate« flohen»»* parttcularly frm Sokoto and Kano (w u& Ll) anea ehe settle along the rlver valleys* Throe type© of population novament-j could therefore he recocnised es laadlng to ohanging pattems of population dlstrlbutlon ao well as najor factors in the rural ©oonocdc dovelopnoat of the mddle Belt* (l) Hove- ment of populaticma Inducsd by the dovolopnent of tranapcrtation routes * fron reisote and inaccossible aroas to «her© notor roads« ralio&y linoa and «ater-says have beorv dovelopodf (ii) tkm m m t of population to the iStrlands* rivor valleys, fadaaaa and to aroas «toere rlce* yaiae and gui» nea*com oan ho c ro m in eoBmercial quantitiee and ober» fadlities for transpcrtlng than to the ßcntirthern and northom marleets freist, and (iil) The general pattem of «igration in Nigeria to aroas with rein» tively los population dansitieo as obaerved by H&bogunj« (1970* 13) wherehy considorable movement of pooplo lnto this aroa of the Mddle Belt tat» place fron the Eoufchom and nortbem pari« of Bigoria, Thus the Middle Belt hae becomo a net roclpimt of population migratlcoa and the Imigran ts settle denn as farxaora, fishermen, tx&dere and artioana. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 61 fh» study area ls ehnrncterieod by a naltiplicity of tribee and tbo ßaaeteer of Supe Prortnea (th® foraor Brovlaelal nm e of th© study area ercluding Abu$a ifedr&ta) llvtod 17 indigenous tribeo and sub-tribea in tha area apart fron tho ia&grsmt Fulani, Igbirra and Toruba tribee (TXipigny, S.C.M. 1920* 70)* In additton to thio* tha s Niger Prerincial Oasstteor naaed tu© othar triboa • tha Gado and ömndara (Bm n h a * K. & 3nith, P.F.F., 1941* 29) in Abttfa Kaimt« brlnglng tho total «tauber of indigoaous tribee to 19, The®« tribee rang« froa 506 Kadonus to tha Birth largast tribo in Northern Nigeria tha Hupe and its oub-tribes «hieh totalled 167*656 in 1920 in the study area* fable» 6 (•) esd 6 (b) Show tho trlbal populatxon flgura» for tha »tudy area in 1920 and 1952 rospoctively, Th» 1951 Consua lioted 14 indlgaanus tribee in th» »tudy area but subsaquant population oenausee and hocal Authorlty tax üanoueoo sine© h1 931 ha;t »■ giran Inas details of tha tribal dietribution of th» * . , population, also© 1931 thare ha» bean a tmdonoy to group all tho tribaa unctor tha fl®» isain tribal groups in tha »tudy area • Muga, G m ri, Hansa* i\*lani and SsiauJau There in also a tondancy for th» \ . »»aller triboa to b» absorbed by th» largar or rulinr trib«a* T o t «rasple, th* KOmsrl (Becu) trlba of Jfcrtigl Bistrict in Blda Kaimt® har» baeome Wupa-daed and abandoned aoot of thedr original cultural 4 traits and «abraced TTupe language and eultttr®, «Mia tha for»©? Qwari Slar»» of th« Nupes* Sbarl baata. in Kataaregi har» also bean aboorbad by Step« oulture (Nadel, S«P, 1942* 30), The Gada and Oaandara triboe ln Abuja itadrat» nov es.ll thensolms Kama in their «ish to b» identified UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY T k s u i e U ) m m * m a l (1920) Triba Hupe I37*t49 Kode* 4,445 Quasi 57,546 Beuch! 3,653 M u H 21*266 Koro 2,391 15*756 Büaöi 2,285 Hansa 14,365 Kakanda* 1,956 Oanadpana* 13*564 Yoruba 1*098 giammlf» 12*515 Ifgeüi 1*062 I^blxra 12*216 Kanusl 1,056 Bataohi* a*77Q H m 605 Supa 7*209 Kadern 506 Total 319*465 * Hupe 3ub-tribee. SBttroe« Dupigny, S.O.H. 1930» aaffi2*toLSO»Ä Prorince, (lenden), p. 70« v srith the ruling Habe-Rauea o f Abu â and havo adopted Hansa ae th eir Principal language. In additlon to the indlßeaoua trlbeo and Hansa im sigrants fvm the Sudan zone, there are oany menbero o f Southern Nigerian tribee ln the study erea« There wer© ln 1952, 15,491 peoplß (3.4?« o f to ta l Population) o f Southern Eigerlan o riß in , including 9*299 Xorubas and 4*817 Ihoe vhUa othere such as the Xßharae fron the Mxd-waet to ta lled UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY » •' 63 TtBIJ! f . lt . 'l s m t m m m m m U ia s s ) Tribe Population # o f Total Ifupe 204,381 44*0 Oeari 128,327 27.6 H|»«* 27,407 5*9 Italani 13,953 3*0 XjRanhu 9,717 2.1 / O ü-r Sorttam ' « * • @ ,264 13.6 oouthem H igsria TAbea 15,491 3 .4 Cnapecified 1,568 0 .5 Bon-Rigerisna 290 0.1 Total 464,458 100 Source« Population Gansus ot the "ortfeera Uegion of Wigeria, 1952* Bulletin Ho^Higsr Pwrtnco, Table B, p. 14, 1,385* 4t the tine ot the fieM survey, a l l the Ibos ln the study area had rettmied to their elnn aroas folletdne the eivil disturboneoo v̂ iich preeeeded the Rigeriaa C iv il Mer* Sven m o re Southern fligeriaas hive howeeer adgmted to the study area to work m artisan®, tradero, railway, govermaent and ooratiercial Companies * effici&la. 7h» preeence o f Southern tribes haß to a great eoctent etiraulated the eoonoay of the area as they proaote trade within the area an v e il aa betveen the area es». UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 64 and othsr pari* ef tha couatry. Ob « noticeetble featum of the trlbal diatrSLbttti©a 1« the fact that Hup« and Hansa trlbal groups ara fornd is ovcry port ef tho areo aa laoigranta «hlle th» Qvarl and Kwnuku trlbal groups are oöldoa found. outsido thaLr hon« distrlcto (llaaaan, M* and Ila'ibl, 3. 1962t 00). This averslon. to trav»lllng ontatdo aaoog th» Kanuk» «ad Orarl trlbea aay be a earry-over of th© fear of slavo raids of tMoh th« Oman and lanukua suffemd groatly up to lat« 19th osntury, «ad it aay also bo da« to th« exoloslve nature of the Ovaria as they Capart fron th« tm t eduoated Quirla) raroly Uv« aaeng ether pooples. Thi« ia parti- oularly noticeabla in Finna, Which 1« « ievn founded in Gvarl eountry ln «hich very f«v Ovaria live. In aast easou, th« fOtr Ovaria in Finna prefer to Uv« in Ovarl viHages an th« ontshirts. In thlo ocmocticc, it m y b« obsemad that «rcl»sivan«ßs er avorsion to tvavol outeid© an« *s hoc» distriet 1s hardly eorapatibl© «Ith the dovelopaeat and &ro«th ef a aodam eomosoy. Tv© nâ crr faotors aro laaldag trlbal diatinctioaa leas noaniagfal ln the ar«a and these aret (1) th« iddespreftd ns« ef Baus« laaguagej and (2) th« steady progross riĥ h Twlww Ir tnolrlng tumang th« popul&tion. Th» Hansa laaguag« has becono th© yngiift fe n n n * in th« area, «ad so» trlbal languages such aa thooa of Boro, bra» Sgvoi and Gad» a m bo» eooinp obsolet© «Ino« siany mall trlbal gronpe so« adopt Hansa as their first 1angoage. The incroasincr as© of Hansa pronotea intor» trlbal and intor-diatrict trading acttvltlee and faoilitates th« «pmad of nm ideaa. Tb« spmad of Islam has affected th« eultural UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY % 65 life of the people and Islas&c law and traditioa are gradmlly dio- placing the eustornry laus and traditioa of tho people. ln apite of tNi uaifying effecte of Hansa langnaß® and Islan, tribal differoaoea aro still sträng in te® sociö-eeanoialc and cultural Organisation 01* the different tribes. mhal differenoea er» fowd within amtrlct» m different trlbeo oecupy specific pari® cf QLst* riete} &rm Mithin villages thare aro separate tribal quartero ne- et Eatcha (länge, Hansa and Toruba quarters) and &t Gmgmlnia ln Abu&x Stedrate uhore Owari, Kore and Hansa tribes occupy differont paxte of the rillage. Timre are difforencos In trlb&l heuslng* tho Kupee build teil round huto with coiucgI roofsj the Hansa bulld flatetcppcd houocss teile the Owaris imädl© their «sali t!mtchod hüte v«ry elosely, and leave little epaee betveen ad̂ aeent houses* Tribal diffbrenceo also occur in socio-eccnosdc Organisation such as in the Organisation cf fonily labour on the farn, in the typen cf crops grom and in methods cf grewiag thon. Por eraople, the Hupoo «re norc hacwledgeable thaa the other tribes cf the study axea ln lowlaad rlce culture- prcdacing in som o&me m at äderhigi, two crops cf riee m tho aa«e plot anmially* The Smria in the aane way are akilled pan faraers, The Hansa population grow sußar-cane, cassava «ad wegetables, aspesially enions in the fadan&s» All ©rer the study area, teere is a tendency to tribal spedalisatic» in egrloultural producticw and «oenpatioß, Tradiag in bete local pro&uota and iaported gooda la imdartekaa minly by iaalgraat Teerten and Hansa m well m by eoa® indigenous Hopes» The arersian to trawol ©utside their hone districte UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 66 haa hem probebly roepocsiblo for the fact that Tory f«w Guari and Xasnaku trlbesaon engag© in trading activities. Tribal contra«ts in hoftd portorag« io also noticoablö, an thoueh Hupe voogo a m ropated to be great load oarriers (iliyu, H. 1914t 29), Owarl w o « carry hearier loads fax Oensus also showe that the Xo»»at pere«ntri£e of t!» pojwlation eXaßsiflel na eldldrea (290) 1® found in the Hupe settÄomaat of Bote. Thte propcjjleranee of the lowsr ogo groupa is s common feature in aony parta of Worthern Nigeria (Kortioor®» K..T. and «tlaon» J. 1965* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig 12 AGE AND SEX PYRAMIDS M M ------- 7 4 ------ - - 69 - - 6 4 - - - - 59 - - £ -------- 5 4 -------- Ä 5 4 9 - - 44 - --------39 - - 34 - 1 29 - - 24 - -------1 9 - - - X -------- 14 - - 9 ---------- 40----------- rL 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20*/. 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20*/. MOKWA PANDOGARI 20 15 10 5 10 15 20 V. 20 15 10 5 5 10 15 20V. DIKO P AI KO Ir r i i ,i i i L i i , i i i i , i i I i i , i i , i 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 V. J IM A /D O K O KATCHA UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 69 29» Komas, D. .?• 1967* 7 and Goddard, D» 1970; 1t) «ad m y be attri* buted to the gradual inpr«nres«nt in stedical knowledge and faeilities leadlag to a reduciian in infsnt aorte-llty, Cther reaseaa m y hon* sror be f ound to esplain the higher poroentage of youthfulnese of the populations of 3d1ao and Falb), '3*03® two sottlaaeat« bare Ix n» cantraa of ßtssionary Health aal educatioiml aetivitiaa sine® 1942 «ad with dioponacury/aatextiity and cMld weliare olinioe, ife is pro* babl* that iafsat aortality ho« boeai cosaßidorably reduoed. In adiitiett the two oettlaamt« havo Fdcaioa eohoola wMch ccm timte to drav thedr pupila fron marroundin# üLotriots, TMe to saae er tunt ha« euLoo awellod the number of chilören in the tue aistricts. The persistently lauer percentage of children in the Bttpe settle- aanta aay be a reoult of the lower fertility of tho Imp» as conpnred with other tribee in tfca study area. A Ion not fortility rate and a low proportion of aon-adulta (895 per 1,000 adult in 1221) were notod in tho 1951 Ceaoua wheu a net deoraaae in Supe pcpulation of 7£» bot* m m 1921 and 1951 wa* rocordod (Brook», E*m than othar trlboa in the etudy ore&* The lowor peremtage of children in tho Hupe village» of Satcha and Doko tead to eoafim the low rate of grmrth UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY of Efcpe pornlation* Of auch inportanco to rural developnent In th» study area is the Proportion of th« population in the active age group l.e. thoae in tho age group 15-59 and. who aro aalnly respaoßibl» for th« ocanotnlc acti- vitlos» Ulte and Poikc Dlstrlcts which bare tho hiebest proportlcea of children har® th« losest peroentage (43*4 and 52$> respoctively) In tho 15-59 ig» group. üheoo aro followed by ikdo» and Paadogari «Ith 57.^ and 53*6$ respoctively whilo the highost proporta ti ans aro fouad in the aoat dsnsely eottled dietrloto of tho study area «* Katcha and heb» with 62*6$ and 64»ti$ of tho population reapectlroly» Eros tho point of rie» of productian Kat cdm and Doko appoar neero fanrourably placod than th« other eottlonaxto, aa they har« a hinter pereontag» of thcir population in tho aötir© ago group and bare lower dopondency ratlos» It should how»iver be noted that in eostraat to dereloped oecaonies, the population in tho age groupo 7-44 and 60 and ©vor oontrlbuto to rural produc tim aa agrioulture is tho doninant econocy (tr.B. 26t 52) and tble is reflooted in tho calculntion of tho labour unit in chaptor 4» Zn the cose of the Kano close-eettled poco, it haa been clained that In a nhaad labour econcciy" tho ptepodozance of louor age groirge is "advantageou® In a Situation in vhich tho cul- tivatod area, and to turne ertönt tho yiold of food cropo, dopend upem the msEsbcr of worfeora availabl®" (Hortisccre, M*J. and tälson* J, 1965t 55), iivery avail&bl» persen m y be occupiod an the flold durlag the short crowing m a sm , even children abovo tho age of six aay be uee- fully mployed» (It la however liksly that ultb gvadnal iaproraaant UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY tl « 71 in health f a c i l it ie s the proportion o f the population in the youn^er oge group « iU r is e . Increaeing school attendanoe partioularly at Paitoo and M i» «111 however gradually reduee th® contritm tion o f ehlldrea in the age 7-14 while ttaa active age group «111 increaeingly have to suppert th® ymmger ege group). Sh® sn aller numher o f older people in the population r e fle c ts & low ararage expectaticn o f l l f e particu larly aseng th® ml® population« Th» lov average expectatiou of l if o «hioh 1® a counom fteturo o f tho population o f dereloping oountrioe and la obeerved in ©ther pari» o f Horthern Nigeria (Mertlmore* K*J. and Älaon* J» 19651 29) 1® a f«a«* ture o f th® study arm« Th® ©videnc® de®» not hororer aupport the altuation obeerved in tho Kann cloae-eettlß d esam in whiah a feaale aged 11 appearo to har® alaost exactly h a lf a® auch Chance o f mxrriring to 71 aa a aal® o f th» saao age« Of the 94 people t w €0 oovored in th® f ie ld survoy, only 31 - le se than one-third, are aen and th ls Shows that höre, feaalee har# greater Chance o f aurvival to older agoe than m ies« Th® 1952 Gmmm figuro® for th» atudy aroa farther r e fle c ts th« averag» low expeetation o f lif® a t birth as only 12$ o f the popula- tion wo» orer 50« ln 1932» an exceas o f feoale over aal® was a oosa®on feature o f the population o f a l l th® Broriness o f Northern Nigeria but cm® o f the J&strieta in the study aroa - Bails» (nain ly Owari settlesaent) had exceaa o f aa le ovar fesaale. The nusaber of saalea per 1 »000 femalee in th» BLstriet «a® 1*153 and 1*035 ln 1952 and ln th® f ie ld survoy UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 72 respeetivoly* fhis oarcaas of aaIss ©ver fcnalos hae been a c o m festere of the populaticaa of tbü DLstrict sine® tfc® 1931 Population Csnsus. Th® s»ale-f«®ale rat io for Baiko in 1931 «so 1*138» in 1952 lt aas 1*075 and in the tax eerums ot 1 $68/69 it was 1167, l’he other Sdatricfcs hav© exeass of femlea over atales* ’i'hia generalised picture hovever eos&s the eosatxaate in aalo- femal* ratlos Mithin the different age groups* Mithin th© younger age rjroup below 14 the re in an exoess of aalos over fna las in all. tbs Mstrictß in th e field mirvey and tbs 1952 Consta* with the «scaptioa of Katcha whare the auaber of aalec and foaeloa are the aase in tbs srunrey wälle ln the 1952 Cattaus there was excese of feaales over nales at Mokna and Katoha* As obaorred oarlior thsrs is an ©scas-a of f ©mies ovai* mies in the age 50 and over oxeopt at Falko über» the nurroy uhov3 mocro miss than f«Kalos* though in the 1952 Genaue* tboro was m sseena of fomle®. WIth regend to the tsore reproduetive ago eroup 15-49* tbo surrsy ahm» an «eoees of aclos* *0113 is related to the polyptatouo natura of oarriagea an m H aa tbo teactenoy «sang rooponksnts to undaa^-deolare the age of their uives* Tho 1952 Öeneus rocordod mors foBtales sxcept at Itttaa and ?&ike uhora nore mies wore rocerdod. In general Appendix I and II indicate «tat the aatle of mies to fe- aale» sho\m at the lower ages a positive correlation with age and thsn fron 14 yeare old and aore* a negative correlatlcn with an increase in age. BsriAiI etflti« Oloaely related to tbe mle-foaale ratio in tü® study axea is 11» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY aarltal Status of the population. Sarltal statt» in the otudy ax®a roflocts lcvol of prosperity and statt»« rsligiaa and aalß-fesaale ratio* Tabl« 7 Shows that a higher peroantas« of the respondeata at Bail» and 1311» (37*5 and 0 2 . reapoctivoly) are aarried to only one vdfe and this aiando in great coatrast to Dok© and Katoha «her« the uale-fooalo ratio ia higher and whero 54*3^ and 97*5# of the am are aarried to one tdfo« Shis tendsacy to storry aa& vife ia Bail» and DU» ia also influeaced by cultural faotora and the eoouacdes of the ttfo aettlencnts* SU» is s preäoradnantly Christian eettleaant «hexe gtonoflaay is obligatory vhilo Bail»« as noted e&rlier« har» consiatmtly shovn an «ccees of malee over feaalea* The ecenoaiee of the tvo Settle­ ments are predomlaaatly aerioultural «Ith lesa developed trading acti- trities than at Zatoha« äoko and ftnalogari* Islam vhioh haa grvater in~ fluence aaong the TJupee at Zataha« hoko and M tätm allowa polygssous aarrlaeoa and aa the ITupe vornan are active tradora in theae eettlorxmts« the men cs» afford to Barry aore than ono wife sinco the wivoa are leas dcpendant an than for oupport. -Area though the Islanlc religion allowa four uitrcs« the poacssaian Of tvo or aore tdroe in the study area is not coanon aa only 29«# of the roependeats have tvo or aore vdvoc and only &- of the aarried mm have 4 vlvso. The noabor of «Lree is cloarly an indes; of a parsen*a uoalth and statt» in the cosasaaatty and the posseeaion of two or aore wivss is fouad only amang the local uohUlty and riah faoilios. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 74 *<> o u» un mn •» 1 e; a c a 3 © f t &% as *6 *4> u% \a * • K\ • «? ti 4 * w *- I I w n <*** £•* ©N *>** W KN u\ VS IA ) l \ W g I KN 5 « jf\ !M f Ift i• * * • *• _«jt W t- cn t\ iS *• 0\ f t f t u? I w b\ irt rv an o* & g*. O KN KN 3N «3 V. SS P S 55 Ä K I mo ft Sü 8 8 S 81 R IR ft K R IR t 12 2! UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY O T T BffrawrffT W BOn BT W 75 RslirLori Ceographors hav© lang recognisod that religious idaao and crgaai- zatioa ssay p2ay an inportant rolo ln the >my «an oceupieo and wate the lond. ielatively little attention hao howovor bson dovotod to the influence of relißiem on tho cultural landacnpe (Sopher, B.3, 196? ) due to laadoqynoy of the availabJe atatlsfcies and oiher ftaidauaaßt&l dato ted the iutmetability of tho naterial itoelf (Sollaely» w* 1961t 140-141)* TJnlik» sosws other detaographlc or cultural traite, religion is a rsany-eided phsnoemon; acoe of ito eore tnportaat aeyeoto &r@ axtrenely diffioult to dcfiae or miastae» and othaie* such as personal attitudec to religlona aattero, &r© poesibly beyond tho ecope of direct obssrrsticn# In »i®w of this* Clark© ebcorves th&t sany exaudnatiou of rellgioe mt&oh is pur*ly quantitativ© lacks penetration" {Clark», J.l. 1963* 101). An erasdantion of the rellgiou» cftapositio» and field oboermtior. of th« population, howove? reveals th« influeae© of roligioa an aode© of lifo* sottlemsnt foraa and htcsan actirlti os, A dlstingaishinc feature of the Hiddl© Belt populatlan au o«a- pared ’.fith the üudan sono of Kiftola is tho prodonimyace of tratlticmal religlous beliefe and tho great®r influence of Chrtstianity Islaa. 40 disoussad in chapter 1, population concua retuma of tho Middle Belt sinoe 1951 have ehosn a predcninance of traditional m i x - gieus adherents. This is true of the study area apart fron 3ida Divisi tre® Christian and trcJitionaX rellgioa faailtes* Tho iasago of tho *loam@d Halas* 1« quito M.©h particularly in toms of Btda, Agaie, Abuja, Lapai end othor aistrict headquarters, and as "roligious Institution® producine nass literacy hairs not appeared in Islam as thsy haar© in other religions* (Sopher, &*S* 1967* 43) tho Xitoracy rat« wamg noalosas in th» study aroa is very low, Christianity has also affoctod soctions of the pooplo of the study arsa though in specific XoeaXitics as at beb», Eoagi, Gawua, and Dwsri Hstricts. Its «ffect can be se«n in tho higher Standards of liieracy at SLko and Boho eher© 44*4^ and 28.# rospectiveXy (fable 10) of rea* pondaats are Xi to rate in either i&gliah or Bause, sine© Missiesaary aotlvities whieh oblig© the individual to read the Joripturoo crocte favourable condition© for attalnmant of a higher literacy rate* fhls in 1. Pilgri* obtainod t r m Pilcrin Agents* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 80 in ecotrHSt tc Q*Gfi sad 13*99- ai Eandogarl and Miese* rospoctivaly ̂ bsr® the nâ orifcy of the population are aainly Bosietss er pagaais. & Mgbaae p e r c e a tn ß * 02 children of C h r i s t i a n s also attend i'-riisary ocnoola nt MJko and Doko «her© $3>ß> « o d 59/- of 7 -U josrs age group of re s p c n d o & te * ehildren sttond Prisary Schools* M s in in ©ontraat t© 19/- sad 24/ a t üandosari and lo k B a rospootively* Hoalth facilitias ar» also b e t t e r dsveioped thrmiüh ths establAohae&t of Kiasioeaaxy I&sp&nsarlea at üiko, i'alfee and titticsa* Othor effects of Missiaaary a c t i v i t i a s «re a o m i n the eoconragosasat of Christians to divaroify crop production na at flUa* «her© C5iristifias wer© «acGiirag&d to grow ©eiten fox «aeport and at üoko and ?ailco «her« they wer« aetivaly oneouraged to grotr rica, Traditionell religiös. also fcaö ita iapaot oti tos mya of üf© and aoosxoay of th© pooplo* In apit© of the srowiflg popularity of the eul- tivatioa of graina in th» study «ree, the Gwaria still havo a streng attachseat to yen cultivaticn aa a result of the pride of plaoo givon to yasss in their tmditicaaal roligion» «h£la tho widss&pread reluotane© of Kupea to cultivate groundnut* is & rosult of the traditionel zoligiouo belief vhich associates their production with outbreolae of soallpe«. It can thsrefor© be seen that religion is a strong factor in both the aoeial and eeoaoaie life of the poople of the study artwu Muoation Th© litaiaoy of the population ie a usefui indicator of the relativ« development of a ceustry so a reeult of itc ©ducetlva process in th© pnat. B©nJs*An M ggbm m m regards cduoatioa aa dtvclopsseni in iteelf when he UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 81 elaiaed that "expenditure otx educatica, hßulth, housiag and tha Ute 3X9 not aeröly- uü&aa to ccoaomio dev.9.0pü;cn.t* thoy axa ecoaoaie dcvelop« aenV* (iliggina* B* 19B3i IBS)» ln a davaioping ccuafcry litos tfigeria and its foiddle Bali in yartioular, education i« a m of thö m a t affective a»an» of lntrodueing and aproading amt and innovative i&oas in a soeiety* and the succaes of auch aodsrniaing activiiioa as agricultural jottenaicaa Services and health educaiioa ia depand%ait an tho ability of the popnlattlon to fcllov iutelligently the varioue »oblioity and educ&t;ive anteriale CBsantial to rural development. ko. ezaalaation cf ih* 1932 lepülaUa* Genaue retums reve&X» the vary lern level af literacy in the study area (Taals 9). Df the total population of 474*45B* orfLy 3*09! or 0.2^ of the total population had Sloeaatary 17 edueation or over* vhlle ?*U23 othere ( l .77) ure Uterate in v&rying decreee but bei»» ;51aaeatary IT. Thia bringe the total Ute« ratee to 11,714 or 2.5$ of the population. This peroentage ia lower than the Figer droviacial pereeatage of 2.2$ literato and tho porcentage literato for the Middle Belt rrovlaees of Plateau (5*2^), Xlorln {$ *% ) and Xabba (4*7/ )• The pereentng© io hewevor higher than thoae of the other tue Middle Belt Iroviacoa cf Mamas» (2»5ß) und Se&ue (1.95) «ad thoso of the Saftan Provinoes apart free Zarin Provlaoe whlcü had the higheat rrorinciul literacy percontage in Northern Nigeria. This ovarall pieture ho»»vor caaouala the Variation* ia the Ute« racy rate Mithin the atudy araa. -ui ecMOftlznstlca of Tablo 9 <&«• that the döüücly pepulatad diatricta cf Äatcoa and Bote attaia rclatively higher litarocy peroeatagea • 2*3/ and -3*6, rospectively vMle the lotsest UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLB 9: LITERACY AND BIPCATIONAL STANDARD (1952) Total Blementary 17 Adult Bdueation Primary + Adult Arabic Literate Illiterato DLstriet Population Bducation Ho. * Ho. * Ho» 5* Ho. * Ho. * M b» 4,542 138 3.0 172 3.8 310 6.8 303 6.7 3,929 86.5 Pandogari 3,451 43 1.3 21 0.6 64 1.9 246 7.1 3,140 91.0 QLko 3,571 85 2.4 93 2.6 178 5.0 30 0.8 3,363 94.2 Eaiko 4,148 64 1.5 62 1.5 126 3.0 134 3.2 3,888 93.8 Jima/Doko 4,997 70 1.4 358 7.2 428 8.6 98 2.0 4,471 89.4 Katcha 3,683 150 4.1 191 5.2 341 9.3 446 12.1 2,896 78.6 Hafple Area 24,388 550 2.2 897 3.7 1,447 5.9 1,257 5.2 21,683 88.9 Survey Area 474,458 3,891 0.8 7,823 1.7 11,714 2.5 10,701 2.3 452,043 95.2 Source: Pöjwlatiot sn. Cenaus of the N; orthern Rigion of Nigeria, 1952, Bulletin 5, Table A, pp. 1,5, ^ .5, 10-1 ! CO ts» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY R««poodenia Pirlaory fiäuoatic i Adult üducatlcn I’rtaary ♦ M u l iratoLc Üdfcuoatlcet m a utarnt© laiotrict m icatlon 3c-» 5* SO. £ so. So. 5t Bo. j£ Hokoa f 56 3 3.5 2 5.6 5 15.9 6 16.7 25 69.4 Ptodogarl 2 5.7 1 2.9 3 3.6 3 8 .6 29 32.8 SU» 36 4 1 1 .1 12 33.3 16 44.4 1 | 2.8 19 52.8 Waftm 35 2 5.7 2 5.7 4 l t . 4 3 8 .6 23 80.0 Jin/ooko 35 4 11.4 6 17.1 10 28.5 3 8 .6 22 62.9 Kstoha 38 3 7.9 4 10.5 7 13.4 11 29.0 20 52.6 Sample i m 215 18 8.4 27 | 12.6 45 20.3 27 12 .6 t«5 66.5 Source: Hold Surrey jaoctionmiro Jjcalyais. ' * I i ii o o c a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 84 peaNHBtagM an» found Sa tha sporsely populated Dtatricto of Randogarl (1.9/0 and leite (3.0/). Th* relatively high paareeotag» reoardod fotr itoJam (6.0/) i* du» in th* » d a to tha than prcaenco of literate «taff of th» Sig*r Agricultural Sroject and «ailwoiys at Mode*» «ad moot of th* Utoaratee «r* not lndlgea*» of th« QLotrlet. The parcaatag» of %' fOr Bote i* • rosult of SUsionary aotiyitloe in th* area» fUrthar 1 1 1* uotrating th» effeet of voUfloa ob educaticnal developoumt ln th» sttwy ATM« Tabl* 9 conpared with Tahl» 10 ahow» th» litersay ehang*s thst hat* taten place ln th» atudy area beteaen 1952 and 1969* In 1952» Katcha had th» high»«t literacy rat» of 9.3/ bat ln 1969» lts litemey rate MMSIll warn DUtrlat Bo. ln So. ln % ln Group School I M » 45 11 24 hflhgtfi 0 12 19 a lte 56 35 73 palte 97 12 21 Bote 46 21 99 Kateha 42 15 36 3a»ple Aroa 309 112 36 Sourcet Hold Sttrrey Qn»*tlOBnalro Analyai». UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 85 Garn third having bean overtakcn by 3&)s# 44.# and Soka 28.^. I M « in gwinly Al# to Miaaiaaary activitiee which «nable indlvldnai Chrlatiana to riinil t N Boripturoa as will as «h m h w »h> t i m to t&ueir (Mlinn to iriaary Schools« Tb# iaere&aing laoigraat oleaonts at Hokaa also inoreased ita literacy rat# fron 6 . ^ Sa 1952 to 13.9# Sa 1969# «fclle that Animal 1951 1952 Growth Rate Abu^a Bsdrate 74*405 67*919 •0,4 Bida Heirate 171,790 195*494 0,7 Agaie/lapai Division 55*049 55*992 - 0 .2 Minna Division* 90*875 147*055 2.3 study Area 595*119 464*458 0 ,8 Kano Beiräte 1*992*265 2*882*414 1*4 Sehote Heirate 1*525*551 2*020*340 2 .1 Bo o m t Northern Region 11,454,910 15,840,479 1.9 * siga dtaaotes doereaae rate per annuau * Ins« U M W ä M Beiräte in 1951 (outaide study area) and ln 1952 in» cludi.ng 1*365 peeple unapeoifled as to Jh. atrista in Ifinaa Division. Seurces« (l) Qsnsna ef Nigeria, 1951* Vol. II, pp, 176-478 (2) Kopulation Census ef the Horthern Region ef Nigeria 1952. Bulletin 5* pp, 1-5 * 9| Bulletin 1t* p. 9« UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY w 89 Th« probable canses of the absolute deerease ln tho pcpulaticn of thla part of the flddle Belt are tho apparently lo* Mrth «ad fertility rat«« aaon# the Hupe (fable® 15 and 14) and «eigration te othor parts o f H ieeria . fh ts lov blrth «nd fertility rateg aneng Wupe are illust­ ratöd by the 1951 Conen# in vfcich the Hupe of all the tribeo in Northern r&ggxla» hae the louest rate ’M l e ln the age group 30-39* 58& of Küpe wessen vere oterllo. Of all the prlndpal tcribes in Northern Nigeria* tho Nupe trlbe has the leaet numher of ohildren per motber, 0.667 as agaiasi an average for all trlbe« of 1.606. Oering the fleld surroy also* it m e tawä that the Nope hae the least Hnnber of pregneneies and live births per aonan (Tabla 14)» 3*1 and 2.5 respeotively as a&sLnst the 5.5 and 4*5 respeotirely of the öearl tribee and ogalnet the 5.0 and 5*5 respeetively of the Hansa tribe. m s Ul m i B m . M L . s m m i s m m u 9Ü 9---N---- ---I----- No. of C M ldrm CbUdren Trlbos J^thws Per Bother All fxlbee 223*005 155*026 248*75! 1.605 Fulani 59*516 40,990 72*901 1.779 Oeari 3*575 2,520 4,346 1.724 Hansa 79*622 55,930 37*736 1.569 Kaxuuri 26,033 17*436 30,045 1.728 RnasM (Tiv) 1,952 1,269 1,798 1.417 Buge 3*622 2,980 1*994 0.607 Xoruba 4*462 3*265 3*269 1.001 äeoreet Csnaus of Nigeria* 193t* Vol. IX* fable XVI* py. 150-154. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 90 tm & m . Http Q rn rl fbrubt ftilani 45 22 16 10 5 Ho« of joafpunolaa per wcraaa 3*1 5.3 5«0 4.5 4.0 So« of livo blrth» per womn 2.5 4.5 3.5 3.« 3.3 HO« Of atiU btrtba/miaoarri- ag«s per woosn 0«« 0.9 1*5 0.9 0.7 So« of livo chilßron per wraa 1.6 2.9 2.2 2.5 2.3 So« of dead cMldren per woasn. 0.9 1 .6 1.3 1.1 1 .0 live children as % of liva btril 64.0 64.4 62.8 69.4 69.7 Dead childron m $ of Uro birtl 36.0 37*8 37.1 30.6 30.3 Sourcet 3arr©gr eoodttetad tu. eell&fcoratie«:. wlth Caraasnlty Sm tam at Mda and Hinaa>. Brids&ues of esdöration fron tb& study a m sheuad in the varieus Anzmal Kaperta siaoa 193t (Woatharhead, X« 1939t 9) and Op« Badal 4Äeo obsarvad that a coatinuoua onigxatioa and tba oxiatanca of a floating Population of tradcrs and erafta&a« driftlng to tu* prosporoua cantres in. tha eouth oould bo establishad bogood deubt (Indol, 3.F* 1942* 10). Daring tfce l'iöld mxnmy in 1963%’* it saa fouad that 43$ of tha Supa iatorviesed had relatiaße *iiö hav© anigratod to oih&x pfl&KISmOB OF AOHlCfflflPSAl. LABOUR AHO U TA ASB. LABOUit KBLA VJHMßUftffS ln thls ckapter ve discuos the Organisation of agricultural labour and the land and labour relationshipe in so far as ttoey affect rural economic development. HS bring out oontrasts and changes taking place in the units of Organisation of agricultural labour in different parts of the study area aa veil as in the aourcee of agricultural labour. w u m s s u im L The unit of Investigation ls the household or farming unit vhich is a separate unit of doaestio ©conoray vith a single head (hoad of household • gtai-gidni , a common production and consuaptioa of food, a common set of farma, granaries, and a oonaon pot (tulcunya). The household or farming unit ia defined in the cas© of this atudy aa "thoso persona eating from the saoe pot" and it hau beea asaumed that auch a group conatitr' as an economic unit. ln Hausa, this ia expressed as *3una oi tnfcpaya. dava*. and it ia the definition adopted by the Ifederal Office of Statistics in their Agricultural Sample Surveys. It also foraa the unit of socio» economic studies undertaken by Smith (t955) and Horman (1967) in Zaria and by Polly Hill (1968) in Batagnrawa. 215 farming units wäre interrieved in the siz case study Districts, and it was found that kinship relations invariably form the basis of the farming units. Two basic types of farming units are recognioed» the individual fand ly mit (lvali. pl. i mhi) and the oompoaite dcoestic unit Itm näu, pl. aandavc J. Different proportiona of the two basic types of farming units wäre found in the six case study Settlements (fable 16). The UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 96 Indi'ri lual facdlies imlrd. hnvo beoame the essential farraing unit foraing 66.5$ of all farning units. The lyali la made up of a nan (single or juarried), hia wlfe or wlvee and depondent children» real or adopted, and in sone caaes, includos the man’a aged mother, for «hose coro he la responsible. m ä J i i mm oy .riw&wm. Iyalai Gandaye Distriot flarming % of all f of allUnits No* faraing No. farming Intarvi «ed units units Hokwa 56 25 69.4 11 30.6 jtandogari 55 21 60.0 14 40.0 Diko 36 26 72.2 10 27.8 Paiko 35 17 48.6 18 51.4 Jiaa/öoko 35 26 74.3 9 25.7 Katoha 38 28 73.7 10 26.3 Study Area 215 143 66.5 72 33.5 Source* Held Survey. The composite doraoatic farming unit fgandu)« conprioeo tvo or raore aale adulta, usually aarried, and their dopendenta farmine together undcr ooataon leadership of their father or most elderly brothcr. In Supe terminology this is knoun ae ofoko and forraerly fornod the basis of d o m e s tic O rg a n is a tio n in a l l econom ic a c t iv i t io a such as fa r a in g , c r a f t - " werk and trading. Nadel (1942s 241-256) remarked that labour Organisation UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * ' ■ 97 in Hupeland in every fiald of economic activity is eharacterlsed by a distinction between individual werk (buca) and composite faaily work (efako). Re also maintained that frorn the economic point of vieir, the large labour group of the efako-unlt is advantagewss to the cultivation of a large variety of useful and profitable crope. He found that 33 (66$) of the 50 Hupe households he intervieved wer© ergonlaed in efako. Smith (1955* 20) also found that the /?andu reaains "the ideal pattern of domeatio Organisation" for agricultural pcroduction araong the Hausa. Aaong the Guari of the study area, the eandu farmine mit forma the baois of agricultural production; in this cormection, Hassan and Na'lbi (1962* 40) observed that "amongst the Gwarim iemaa the ycuths continue to werk on the general farm even after aarriage" and claimed that the "System is maintained by thern to this day". In many parts of Northern Nigeria, the aandu hao been found to be the main baeis of agricultural production and this has boen reoogniood, araong others, by Gremberg (1947), Norman (1967), iolly Hill (1968) and Goddard (1969). graaai The members of a «mdu and their dopendents uork togethor on a set of common m m du fanaa under the direotian of a single head, ucually the father or the eldest brother if the father has died or beccuea incapacitated aa a reault of 111 health or old age. The maftu head supplioa the agricul­ tural tools and aeeds, and is responsible for the food, housing and clothing of the sosbers and dependents vithin the aandu, as seil as for paying the annual tax of the adult male members. He is also expected to ostablish the aembers socially when they reaoh full adultliood by paying UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 98 their brid©-price and other oarriage axpenses as «»II ao child-bearing expenses, Ihe senbers of the eandu in re tum are ©xpected to follow the direction of the hoad and work ln the a^adu fanss under hin supervision. The individual membors of the aandu ar© allowed to farm saall plots of their o«a • »eveniag faroa* known as gavauaa ot lauraa (busa - hupe) and the'j also carry out sone eraftuork in the dry seaaon. Work m the g a m m a le naittly performed in the evanings and on Ifcidays, and provides indepen­ dent incone for mambere* personal neods over and above thoo© e&tered for by the eandu head such as recurrent expeo.se s on clöthlng and personal savinga. The gavauna plot is usually lese than one acro and individual nembers are free to grow «hatever orops they choooo on it, using their saall savings to buy fcrtilisers or materiale for eraftuork. The majority of the farraer« aged over 40 years intorriewed regard the eandu as belng the ideal farmine unit, and McaHtefathat it has many advantages over the ivall faradng unit in providing labour essential to the cultivatioa of a large variety of cropss «he younger nenbers of the aandu leara fron and are guided by the older senbers, whilc reaponsibili- ties on the faxms oan b© voll distributod. The ©ööuatlally coapetitive epdrlt found vithin well-.organiaed aaadage usually onhances the energy devoted by the individual vorker to the common task. Moreover, the existing social franeuork «ithin the aandu guarunteoe a ae&aur© of security for individual nenbers of the gaadu. partioularly for the old men. On the other hand, young faraers below 30 years of ago feel that the fgmdave syatem does not guarantee a raeasure of freodora and dlacretion in planning tarn vork and othor rural activitles. Individual mombers of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3 99 aandave aro rostrieted in their freedom of choice of crope, aethod of eultivation and in the diepoaal of crops jointly producsd. Soae um hers of the gandavo take undue advantag© of the Organisation by not being hardworking at the joint farm work, Snterprising aeabers of the mndnve are therefor© not aatisfied uith the apparent security offered by the gandavs and thas prefor to be self-reliant in their fhnaing activities. It therefore appears that the mndave System as an ‘ideal pattem of domestic Organisation’ in agricultural produc feion is being undormiaed while the ivalai is boconing the ideal uni t of agricultural production. fable 16 shows that only 53*5$ of the farraiag units wer© However, the incidenco of m&days aaong the Uwari and kasuku tnbos of PaikD and Pandogari is quite high» forming 5U4>- and 40.0,. of total farraing units interviewed respoctively. At wokwa and Mko (Hupe and Gwari Bistricts rospectivcly) the inoidenc© of aandays is lower «• 30*6/* and 27.6t respectively, while the lösest incidenco is found in the mainly Steqpe high population density Bistricts of Kateha (26.3/;) and Jlma/Boko (25.7^). The Variation in the incidenco of gandaye in the Bistricts aay be explained by a numbor of factors. The high incidenco of aandave at Paiko and Pandogari aay be explained by the fact that they are located in th© noderately and spareely populated Bistricts respectively and as thers is no faraland shortag«, it is still posslble for composite farming units to have their farwing plots fairly close to their settlenents in largo blocks. Th© Kamin and Owari tribal System of building composite faaily dwelllng houscs on their farms» and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY % 100 their socio-eultural Organisation whereby cloae relatious live and werk together in large eempounds üd.da pl. aidaie). particularly favour the faxalng System* The prodnotion of yam , guinea-com and millet, which are the min erops at iaiko and Paadegari» in usualiy based on the gandu systen* and uatil r contly food orop marketing m s poorly developed in the two Districto so that the coamercialioed produotion of food erops» vhich has lad to the ibrmtion of individual f oaily faraLng uaita at Katcha and Jiaa-öoko 2dstricto» was absent« Besidos, the produotim of riee, which haa become ths most comsaercialioed agricultural activity in the study area» is on a vory small soale because of the few fadm m and the absenco of rivers uith wide flood plains in Paifeo and Paadogari Districte« In addition, a ström* incentive is givon to SUlani sons to remin within the gandu mmg those Pulani »ho have settlod ln Miko Bistriot and »ho oim substantial nwabers of oattlo as the mndu system particularly ensures the oupply of herdsaen. Off-fhra eaploynent, such as in eraft» work and trade» »hieh has been a source of capdtal for oany young Nup® farcaera at Katcha and Jiaa-Ooko wiahing to set up on their own» is fev at Paiko and Pandogari« Of the 71 faraing uait heads iaterviowed in the two Districts, only 15 or 21> had Other occupatioos apart froa fanaing. The abseuce of off-fara inooiae to substitute for farta income to cover tb# social Obligation® of aeabers of tho gandayo atrongtheas the authority of the gandu head. The aversion to travel by Owaria outsidc their homelande aoted in ohapter 3 ties tho Gmri and Kamuku of tho two Districts to their hone coramunities, and thoy are thuo uaually umdlling to avail themselvea UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 101 Of the off-farm eamin » «Mdi could nahe thea independent of the gandu. As noted in chapter 3* religlon bas influenced the ooclo-ocononic Organisation of the people of the study area and both the spread of Isla« in Mokua and of Chriatianity in Diko have significantly led to the decreaae in the incidonce of the /sandu System. Zn this regard it ls relevant to note the obeervationa ©f Creenberg (1946) among the Kagusava of Kano and Smith (1963) among the Hausa of 2arla that the incidenc©, siae and functions of gandu have been greatly circumecriböd under the influence of Islam# With the emphasis ©f Islam and Christian!ty on individual ownership of land and individual faailies as social and economic unita, the eaeentially Moslem oommunity at Mokua (74#g&) and the Christian ootsmunity at üiko (55*&„,) - (fable Q ), have adopted the ival/ti farndng uait * (which forme 69*# and 72# 2£ respoctively of fanalog unita intervtowed)# Discuosioa with faztaers in the two dtatricts revealed that the gandu system has been subjeoted to straine under religiouß influence# At Dike, where the highest pereontage of children of school-age attend schoola, the increasing exponscs of children *s edue.ition uhich are bomo by lv^iai unita furthor hasten the breakdown of flandu# Kokwa and BLko Matricte wer« formerly contrea of export crop production - cotton and groundnut at Mokwa and cotton and ginger at Dl ko. fhe production of crops for caah ia usually based on the ivaiid, farming unit fron whoae prooeeds the payment of ta x « » , echool fees» and the growing desire for mnufactured articlea are met# 1t therei'ore follows that when- ever agricultural production for tho market ia on the increase the gandaye UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY y» 102 farnlng mlta are invariably sub^ected to tensiona leading to their breafc-up and Substitution with iyalai faralng units. Opportun!ties for off«fa.r» eaployment «ist at ® o k m and Mko in contrast to its absenco at Raiko and iPandegari. Mven though dry m m m cral'twork and fishing are not on a large scale an found at Katcha and Jlma/hoko Mstricte» paid omployaent is found with the railmys and Agricultural Research Station at Hokwa and at ibu^a town which 1» 8 alles fron Miso, is noted oorlier, wfoorevor souroea cf incorao other than from • 4 fhmlng are amilable* thoro 1® the tendency for the diaintegmtion of the gandu and the eaergence of imlal faraing unitsj thds was the case with Hokwa and Mko. The low incidence of aazuSu farraing units at Jlraa/boko and Katcha further illuatrates the grovinr deccntralisation of fhrtaing Organisation and preference for imlal fandag units notieenbl© in the study area and in other parfcs of Northern Nigeria.* In contraat to the high incidence of mndu (efateo) farsing units found by Nadel (1942* 243) among the Bupe (6^) it was found that the densely populated Hupa Districta of Katcha and Jiaa-itoko had 3ust 26*3?- and 25.7^ reopeetivoly of thsir fanaing units organiaed on madave Systems. Gbsermfcions and discussions with farners on the field indicate that the incidence of f;:»nda,ve is on the deeline followinc the increasing impact of a ametary economy on agricultural production. 3aith (1955) > who holde that the ^mdn is1 1, See for examplo Creoxborg (1946)| üfcalth (1965) and personal cö®M»iea- tions with Hesar®. 4.1). Goddard and B.J. Bunt^er of the Rural iJccnomy Research önit of Alasadu Bello ünirersity, ;$aria suggest that the inei*> denoe and functioninc of aaadu in agricultural production at üokoto and 2aria are On the decroase as a result of incresadng inpact of a monetary UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4’ 103 »eesential to tlm Bausa**# recogaised that the lncddence of m nM is decreaain^ due to high death rate, aigratiom and land ahortages. In addition, the ineidence of gandu 1s oft«« lese when "crafts, trade and dry seaaon cane ferming were signifleant alternatives to grain productlon". Pelly Hill (1968t 243) holde that 13» low ptroportion of fhrntng units in fsandn at Batagarawa is partly explained hy the high aortality of raiddle- aged men and the break-up of randa on the death of the father, The re is no doubting the fhct that the reasons g lre n hy the above workers as contributing to the decline in gandara incidenco is in v&rying degrees, valid for the Katcha and Jlma/bok» lüstriota* The abolition of slavery (on which the Hupe gandu sys ton was originally baaed) and the spread of Islam have oodified the form of aandavo as well as leadine to a meesure of individual freedon of actien and consoquontly to the develop­ ment of the lralftl faraiag unit. As to bo disoussod in Chapter 3 that pressure of population on the land ie one of the factors which led to Individual faaily ownership of land in ’Cls-Kaduna* Districto of Hupe land. The incidenco of isandu has boen reatricted in *Cio-Eaduna* by the land tenure System resulting fron pressure cm the land and payment of tribute cm fanalands leaaed fron land-omers. Of the 43 tributo-paying fanners in Katoha and Jlaa/ltoko Distriets only 4 or 9.3$ are in the ^andu diüe the others are in lvalnl fanaing unite. In centrast to this, 15 or 50$ of the 30 taraing units who own a large portion of their faralands wo re organised on gaadu basis» This oompares vith what Pölly Hill found at Batagarawa where 11 (64.7^) of the 17 farming units who own a large Proportion of farslands were organised on gaadu basis (Polly Hill 1963t 249), UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 104 The types of crops groun porticularly th© increasing produotion of riee, sugar caJiO and onions v/liich are the aain cash crops in K&tcha and J im / Doko atstricta are in taost oases produced on individual fanily baais, We therefore soe that the increasing coumercialioation of ngriculturo in the öiatriots have lod to a break-up of the faming units. Koreover, the 'Cie-Kaduna* Ötstricts of Nupelaad are xeputed for the handicrafte praotised in the öistrlcta such aß cafving, cloth eabroidery, dyeing, cloth and mat veaving, aaking raphia tags etc} they are also noted for fishing, wiiich talaea plaoe along the valleys of Hi vors Niger, Kaduna and Gbako. As noted earlier, proceeds fron off-farm occupation*. are often excluded fron g?mdu and the more opportunitios there are for off-fara enployments the leaser the ineidene© of ffindave farraing units. Inccoe frora off-fara eaployssent for fanaers in Eatcha and Jiaa/hoko Districts is quite sübstantial, and in nany cases haa provided Capital for «stabilshing youag farxaers on their own, further leading to a break- down of the gandu sys ton and to an increase in the incidence of ivalal farmlng units. Me therefore soe that throughout the study area, the dairability of the gwadn working unit has dlninished. The lacreasing inpaot of a monetary econony and other faotors such as increasiag populatioa and pressure on the land, enigration, opportuaities for off-fara employment etc. have lod to a docroase in the incidence of g an d u as an essential unit of agricultural production, The ivalai farming unit is oiaerging as the ideal unit of agricultural production in response to increasing conmercialisation of the rural ©conomy. Thie breakdoun of the traditicnal UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 105 socio-economic Organisation of a@riou3.tuml production baß besau accelerated in the Katoha and Jioa/öoko D latricts which are high popula- tio n deneity öLstrlcts* as wall as csntree of coanercial ag rieu ltu re , trade and off-fana employment opportunitiea. The trac&tional gandu System of ag ricu ltu ra l production io also rapidly giving way to the iv a la i syster. in the predcnainantly Christian and the re la tiv e ly cducatio n a llv advaneed Diko Eds t r i c t , .tte.Jtesa &sf: We may now ask whether tbere ia a sause in which the breakdown of the large trad.ition al gmidu faraing units i s an indioation of ru ra l economic development, ln the case of the hupo, Madel (l942i 24) regarded the breakdown o f the large centralli^-coatrolled cxtended i’aadlies coneti- tu tin g fanaing u a its aa "the re su lt of an in tr in a ic economic development* leadin,: to a "readjua ta rn t betwean productive Organisation" and vhat aay be regarded as f e i t needs and dernnds exiating in tho society . Mortinore and tfilson (1965* 42) in the case of the Kano Close-dett3ed Zone held that *a tendenoy towards smaller family u n its and (by inp lica tioa) g reater individual freedom .........point to the eaergence of these places ( i .e . the o lose-settled sone) as economic groving pointa and contreo o f socia l Change Johnson and Hellor (1961* 566-593) also hold that the breakdown of trad itio n a l patte ms of ru ra l l i f e fa c i ll ta te a rapid ag ricu ltu ra l development. I t aay therefore bo argued th a t the s tru c tu ra l changes in the rural productive Organisation i s an inovitabl© part of the process of ru ra l economic development. Ehe amallor working u n its of the individual fam ilies fivaljti) give a comparatively larger maasure of freedom to the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 186 younger generation who aro mora adveaturoua and roapoad aore read ily to now ideas and Innovation. Against the conaideration of group effieiency and security offered by the rrandu system stand the noticeable spread of improved ag ricu ltu ra l practices manifested by the uae of f e r t i l ia o r s , . the greater intensive uae of farmlands, po rticu lariy the fndAma and changes in crop combination increaflingly orieated to a monetary economy. The younger generations aro iucreaningly free to ohooae «hat crop combina- tions to grou* and to organiee th e ir time without the inhibitiona imposed by the large working un its of the «andu system. Among the o a jo r determinants of the f armer’s aize and aelecticm of cropo grown is the type of labour availab le. In the study area three main aources of labour could be recognized* these are ( i) fan ily labour of the members of the farcing u n itj ( i i ) co-oporative or colloctive labour * a a m . (Hupe egbe and daoloi; and ( i i i ) wage-labour: lada or koda.ro. (Hupe kantauJ. A fourth subsidiäry source of labour i s that rendered by sona-in-law or by tenants to land ouners as a form of tribu te • ‘fable 17 i llu s tra te e the conparative importance of these sources of labour aoong farme rs . F a m ily Ijahour In an area uhere one of the raajor constraints on expension of ag ricu ltu ra l producti«. i s the shortago of labour i t may be oxpected th a t ag ricu ltu ra l production is dependent mainly on fan ily labour. All the faxming un its depond an it* and only 21.4^ of the farming un its make use of wage labour. Ife noted e a r l ie r on that fa s ily farm work taay be UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY BSiiSJLL* 1 Sand ly Labour Collective Labour feige Labour Others* Wlfe works üictrict on the farm Ho. * Ho. i- HO. % Ho. * No. % Mokwa 36 100 2 5.6 6 16.7 2 5.6 23 63.9 Bandogari 35 100 13 37.1 3 8.6 5 14.3 29 82.9 xuiko 36 100 16 44.4 4 11.1 6 16.7 32 88.9 Diko 35 100 2 5.7 5 14.3 1 2.9 3t 88.6 Jima/üoko 35 100 “ - 15 42.9 7 20.0 20 57.1 ■# Katcha 38 100 m m 17 44.7 8 21.1 18 47.4 Study Area 215 100 33 15.3 46 21.4 29 13.5 159 74.0 c«■»sl * ilainly labour froro oons-in-law and Tara tenanto. Saurco* iileld Survey. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY h 108 organised oa aandave or Imlai basls, and that thoso farming units oonsist of adult m m , their wives, ehildren, relatioas and other depen- dents. The size of the faradng unit thcrefore boconea a crucial factor with regard to the araount of labour available for fax» work. Closely connected with fand ly labour supply 1« tho Kiddlo Belt is the eontributioa of womon to agricultural and other rurnl activities. Sven though Islaaie rellglon is spreading in the study arta ao noted earlier in Chapter 3 the practica of vife seclusioa (fotHe) is not as videly practised as in the Muslim Sudan Zone. Only 8.4/4 of oarried mon keep Harems and these are found mainly in the Hupe Districtß of Kateha, Jima/itoko and Mokwa, while the Üwari and Kaauku tribes of Paiko, Mko and Pandogari raroly ktop harems. HVen ooae of tho laosleia womea in pnrdflh at Kateha and J i m / Boko help in aowing, Irarveating and procesaing ©f farm erops, Table 17 shows that 74.<$ of faruors* wives intorviewed work an the tarn and the percentage is partioularly hi^i at Paiko (08.9/ )# Oiko (88.6/) and Pandogari (02.9/-)* Women taks pari in practioally every farming activity apart fron bush Clearing and rldging. They contrlbute to aowing, weeding, harvesting and proceesing» and aro respansibl© for the sale of farm producta. Hany Gwari women ©von have their own yaa plots while Hupe women at Jima/Doko and Katoha Districts own famlands which they give out on loan or eie© farm by hiring labour. The collection Of aheanuta, looust bean and firewood for sale is also wholly undertakwi by vornan, and these activities bring thera substantial cash returns* Pemale labour is thcrefore reckoned with in caleulating the labour unit UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ’b 109 belov. The contribution of «men to agricultural produc fclon in the Middle Belt is quit« high, due in the m i n to pagan influence. IMo i® in contrast to the Sudan Zote where woaen are free fron working cm the farm (Goddard, A*D. et* al. 1971* 15) as a res ult of Islaaic influonce. Houover, Lüning (1963* 62) noted that at Bastle (a mainly pagan villago) in the Sudan Zone «men are as industxioua as their aale comterparts and often have large plots of farm. We thorefore aee that the Middle Belt doee not, in the mein, suffer froa the religious diaadvantage «hich ree tri cts the perticipation of «men in agricultural and other rural activitiea. Gwari and Kamnku «men are particularly active an the farm and in the aale of farm produce, «hilo Hupe « m m tato pari in sowing, prooeseing and marketing of farm producta* Hupe womm are also active traders in agricultural producta, crafts and manufactured producta. Kany of the woaen are in very streng econonic positions through their trading activitiea and aasist their husbands on the farn and contribute to the upfoeep of the household, Wo therefore see that vomen in the Middle Belt and the forest zone ualike their counterparts in the Sudan Zone occupy unique Position in their eontrlbution to rural ocononic activitiea. äscüssatääxa w flglteattm .kftara; ln addition to family labour on the farm there is the traditioaal System ef mutual asaistance imrolving oo-operative or colloctive labour gayva (Hupe egbe. dzolo). «hich is common ln many parts of Nigeria. Collective labour is eaployed if the farming unit working by itself oannot finish essential farm vork on time ei the r by reason of a small labour unit, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 110 ill-health or old am ameng the manbers, irregulär rains or an exponsion of farm sie« vhich nequires extra labour. Collective labour ls not limited to farm vork aloae as it ls often employed in houoe-building and village comraunal development projects.1 This type of farm labour «hieb was common in the past is neu rare particularly at Diko, Jioa/Dokö, Eatcha and Kokva Districts. fable 17 shovs that of the fhraors Inter» vieved at Jima/Boko and lateha Districts, nono eraployed collective labour vhile only 5.7/ and 8.3/ of faraers at Piko and ro k m Districts respectivelj eaployed collective labour; One aay ask vhy collective labour, which usod to be a m i n source of labour on the farm, has lost its importance. The anowor to this is not far-fetched. The primary advantage of collective labour lies in the time-eaving which it aakes possible and this is seoured at a oost - in terms of payment for food, drinks and drumsaers as veil as tim© speat in working ooramunally whon invited by other farmera, The raoney and time thus spent could be speat on hiring labour that wouM work to the farmer's specification. (to;a participemts maintain a low Standard of work on the farm, vhile young faraers d© not banefit fron as this form of oolleotive labour is United to elders* faxas* The eldorly faraer does not fully benefit fToa m m in view of the low Standard of work, vhile the young farmer is not supposed to banefit fron gawa at all. If there is need for extra labour on the fax«, the faraer now relies on hi red ----------------------- ------------ 1. fbr details of the Organisation of collective labour arncng the Küpe and Gwarl trlbes, see* Nadel, 3.P. (1942), A Black Bysantium, pp. 248- 251 and Hassan & Ha*ibi (1962), A Chronicle of Abuja, p. 41. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * i i l labour rather than an gayya, or alternatively eithor reduces hi® scale of farm Operation or works extra hours on the form. Collective labour has increasingly bocome an insignificant source of labour as its practica ia auited aainly to a subsistence econocy and not to the incroasingly comiaercialised agriculture of the study area. Wan» Labour The third source of labour on the farm is wage labour lada or kodA«?o (Küpe - Kantsu). Wage labour ia frequently eaployed wheaever the labour available within the farming mit ia insufficient for the work on the farm, it is also eaployed by part-timo faraers auch as craftamen, Hailama and aalaried workera. 'm@ß labour ia preferred by the fermer as he «tan exarcise greater oontrol en the quality of the uork down as compared with gayya. With the decline in gawo. and aandu farming units* the increaaed acale of Operation on the ferm and the inoreaaing attondance of ohildren at achool, the eaploynent of wage labour is riaing particularly at Katcha and Jima/boko Districts. fable 17 shova tbat 21?- of fartaers interviewe! eaployed wage labour on their farms and even though this percentage is lower than 58$ obtained at Batagarawa by Polly Sill (1968: 249)» Observation in the field Show that the employment of wage labour has become a regulär feature of agricul­ tural production. The high population density Districts of Katcha and Jims/ boko, where agrioulture ia most coaaercialised and whore the grsateat opportun!ties for off-fasa employment are fouad» have the highest percon- tages of farmers i&o employ wage labour - 45/® and 43/- respactively. This is in contrast to the other four Districts where lass than 17$ of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY » 112 faraora eaploy wage labour. As earlier noted, the four Äatricts (particularly Paikc and Pandogari) have few off-farm employsent oppor- tunities whlle tho degree of agricultural oomercialioation. is lass than those of Katcha and Jina/üoko Mstrictß. Tbere is, hov/ever, & general ahortage of wag© labour in this pari of the Klddlo Belt, In th© cas© of the Sudan Zone, Lüning (l965t 75) obsenred that "the re seetas to be always surplus labour" and that «th» min limiting faetor in eraploying paid labour appoarcd to be che lack of Eoney on the part of the etnployer". This Observation is supported by Grove (1957* 40), Hortimore and Wilson (1965* 45) and Polly Hill (1968i 245), In oontrast to the apparent excese supply of faxet labour (to demand) in the Sudan Zone, the Middle Belt suffera fron excosa demand for fax« labour and ahortage of supply, Unlike the Situation in the Sudan Zone vhere farm labourors eure drawn from small farmers with insufficient land to fully eaploy them, all faxmers (apart from a few in *Cis«£aduna* Listricta of Katcha and Jima/Boko) have suffioiunt land to employ them fully. Apart from the neod to pay bride pric© and in soa© cases annual tax, young farme rs in tho iliddle Belt have no cause to work as faxet labourers as they have enougfa land to ksep them fully occupied. Tho relative ly high percentage of färmere who employ woge labour at Katcha (44,7$) and Jlma/Loko (42.9$) üiatricts draw the labourers from itinsrant Hausa labourers and from farmers with inoui’fident farmlande (the reeult of the land tonure System and high populatlon densities disoussed in the next chapter). In the other Districts mag« labour is seoured from Hausa iramigraats, but within a year or two such immigranta UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Jn 113 oecure farmlands and cease to becomo farm labourers j haace in no aase has wage labour becoso a permanent exclusiv© occupatioa or & regulär aeans of suppleomting farm incozne, for a elasa of hlred, land-less farm labourers has net yet evolved. The ahortage of farm labourers reaains cn® of fhe major problema of rural economic development in the study arca and aany farzsere are unable to expand their ocalo of farm operatione beo'use of inavailability of farm labourers. fhe ßkortage of farm labourera has nothing to do with low wagee aa daiiy wages ranging betveen 3/6 and s/« compare favourably with daily wages ranglng betweon 2 /6 and s j~ in the Sudan Sou®. The skortage of farm labourera ia therefore du® to the sparse population and to the easc of acqulsition of faru&ands by Immigrant farm labourers in the area. With refersnoe to the continuing debate about ‘labour surplus* econosies in underdeveloped cotmtries (Lewis, Ä. 1954: Fei, J* and uni8, 1964) discussed in chapter two, it appears that the problea of rural economic development in the Middle Belt is not that of ‘labour surplus* or ‘disguised uaeaployment1 but that of *land surplus * whereby land for agricultural production is available1 in plontiful suppliea but the human reaourooo available under present cultural nothods of production are too few to utilise the land resourcce, The problern of development is, unlike in othor parts of Nigeria and other underdeveloped countries, that of a ’land surplus) economy (Helleiner, K.H. 1967). The 1. Sven ia the ‘OLo-Kaduna* Districts whore population denoities are high faralands are still ‘available* for development though at a price in terms of tribute paymmt. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY y 114 present Situation is one of limited agricultural production as a resuit of shortage of labour rather thaa from any lach of cultivable land, ln this eonnection, Grove (t961 * 115 & 125) observed that vhere population denaities are low in Northern Nigeria (as in the Kiddle Belt) land uae is coaoonly unspocialised, while hi# densities ranging hetween 150 and 200 per square raile and over are "gonerally assooiated with auch more efficient uae of the land, giving higher productiaa per unit area", The comparatively apocialisod and coamercialised agriculturo in tue denaely populated S im /D oho and Katcha Diatricta uhere farm labour ia mors available and where agricultural land uae is more intensive thaa in the sparsely populated U&strieta Show how relevant -Kais Observation is to the Kiddle Belt, The present population denaity in the study are«and in the Middle Belt as a whole is below the 70 to the square mile estioated by Nash (1948) to bo the oinimum required to copo w ith the re-slashing of bush to eradicate tsetse flies and expand the level of agricultural production. In addition it is lower than the density of the carrying capaoxty of the land (177,8 to the square alle) calculatod in chapter aix, The shortage of labour to farm the large expansc of fertile land within the study area limits not only the intensity of cultivation but also the scale of Operation of fanaing activities, lt is therefore olear, that &lven the prevailing teohniquos of production in the .iiddle Belt, rural economic develojmsnt and a more intensive utilisation of the roaourcea dspond on an increase in the population and consequently on the labour force* m & m M W ' , » a w « i 3 i g B Xh discussing the land and labour relationships we focus attention UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY > 115 on the fa rain" mit labour available for farm work and the min factors deterraiaing the size of farm cultivated by a faming unit, It should be noted that not all the nembors of a farraing unit are in a poaition to contribute equally to farm production by reason of age, se x, and opportun! ti es available for off-farm eaploymeat, 1t ia there— fore neceasary to differentiate betveen the taembors of the farnxng unit who contribute to the eoroing capacity of the unit on the farm. In order to meaaure the total potential of labour unit available for work on the fieldy labour unit äquivalente were aaelgned to different eex and age groupe.^ In working out the labour unit3 it was assuaed that physical labour productivity ahows initially a positive oorrolation and then a negative correlation with increasee in age. ln addition, it m e assumed that the physical producti vity of women is lower than that of men (Norman, B.V. 1967* Q). On the basis of theso aasunptions the labour unit equivalente (given below) were assigned and Tablc 13 illustrates the average eise of faraing unit» and labour unite. It is appreciated that labour unit raeasure iß arbitrary in natura but as Norman (1967* 30} has observed, it ia "iaore realistic to discuss economic phenomena in euch a way rathor than in terms of faaily size". 1 1. In assigning labour unit equivalonta to different sex and age groupe the author benefited fron; discussion with ür. D.¥. Norman and Nr, A.D. Goddard both of the dural economic Research Unit of Ahrndu Bello University who were carrying out rural soclo-ceonomio studiea in ^aria and aokoto respectively. liowever, the labour unit ©quivalonts assigned Ntoor mtahne adnifdf Kerr.e nGto dadgaer da.nd sex groupe are different fron those of Sr. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY m 116 am Labour ünit * iäjuivalent Leas than 6 Male and fea&le 0.00 7 - 1 4 Kaie fetnale 0.50 15 - 49 Male 1.00 15 - 49 Jbtaale 0.50 50 and above Male and feaale 0.25 Polly Hill (1968* 249) in «xrlftltf at a "weigfcted popule tion" of the faxaing unit counted children, ucaarried girls and Infants aa "half- adults". 3he apparently did not »coopute* feoale labour but hold that "the nuober of working n t » in a ftmning unit aay cnly he a rou$i jsteaeure of its effective 8trength". Tabl© 17 Shows that 70.7f- of fanaers» wives work on «je fam, and in view of the dcgree of partlcipation in farsa woric undertaken by G}wari and feuauku women, ve hold that in calculating the amount of labour available for farm work, tho labour unit ls sore msaning» ful than the number of working malea. üVen in Islaoic Nupe JDdstrieta wbene wonen are increaaingly involved in trading, they also aasist in planting, harvesting, procesaing and transportiag fana orops aa well aa in ailviculture. Aa noted in Chapter three, childron over the age of 8lx also oontributo to labour on the farm. In viow of the oontributian of wooen and childrea to agricultural productio», lt aay thereforo be hypotheeised that the aize of faras and crop coabinationa reflect the sise of the labour unit and not necessarily the nuaber of working mies. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Maua» iisay.m m ahb avu m m ss Siae of Rinning Labour Unit Per Average Acroage Average Acreage Units ilaraing Unit* Per Panning Per Labour Diatrict Panning Unit Unit Units Hin» Max« AT« Hin. Max. At. Beta* 36 4 15 9.6 2«5 7.5 3.9 9.7 2.5 Paxxdogaiü 35 3 ^ 20 10*7 1.5 1.5 4.4 9.3 2.2 Diko 36 3 15 7.7 1.5 4.0 3.1 7.5 3.4 Pal ko 35 5 15 9.2 2.5 3.25 4.2 11.0 2.6 Jiaa/ Doko 35 3 23 9.6 3.0 3.0 3.6 7.9 2.2 Katcha 3Ö 3 15 3.2 1.5 7.0 3.1 7.1 2.3 * Wlves (ln puurrodah) who do not work on the farm at nokwa, Jimg/Doko and Katcha not accounted for. Sources Piold üurvoy. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 118 The average number of labour units per faraing unit is 3.7 though the labour unita at Pandogari and Falko (4*4 and 4.2 respoctively) are higher than the average for the total Bistricts. Thio reflects the higher degree of partioipation in farm work by women in view of the non-seelusion of women and few opportunities for off-fara employment in the two Bistricts. At Katcha «ad JiWdoko a few of the farmers (10.4,-) kt>ep tkeir wivea in purdah, and there are more opportun! tios for off-fara enployment the percentage of women who work on the farm is lower (47*4/ and 57*1$ respectively) so that the labour units for Katcha (3*1) and Jiaa/Ooko (3.6) as well as for Blko (3*1) are less than the everall average of 3*7* It vas earlier hypothesiaed that the sizo of faras reflects the also of the labour unit within the faraing unit and in view of this we may ask whether the sise of the average labour unit affectc the average farm aere&ge. In this regard, it has been claimed that "in many parts of Worthern Nigeria ..... the size of upland farm holdings Is deterained by the sise of family or more exactly by the labour available per family for ffcra work" (Urning, H.A.A. 1963 « 51 )• This Claim has been supported by socio-economic studiea in äaria (florman, b.W. 19671 34 & 40) and in the Sokoto Close-üettled zone (Goddard, A.D. et. al., 1971« 30) where family eise and labour units available are fouad to be olgnlfioant as a Claas of hired, land-lass farm labourers has not yet evolvod. ln addition, cultiva- ted acreage is held to be closely related to the consumptlon requirementa of the farming unit. Table 18 gives the average acreage of farme per faraing unit and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY > 119 per Iabour unit, and vdth the figures given in the Table, an attempt was aade to find the correlation between average Iabour unit and, average acreage per faraing unit. The correlation co-ef fielent was found to he 0.93 and the co-effieient of dotermination was 0.87. This in eff ect aeans that average Iabour unit aocounts for ae such ae of the average farm acreage. When the correlation co-ef fiel ent vaa srubjected to tho Student *t* test, it was found that the H* of 0.37 was significant under 0.29 at 25$ lovel of the *t* dißtribution. This in effect indioates that the mtaber of Iabour unlts in the faraing unit available for fara work is v e r y significtmt in determining the aise of farm aareage cultivatod. ln a&dition, the oultivated acreage would bc closely related to the concumptiom roquirements Of the fip.ming unit« It is recognised that other fhetors affect the eise of fhrm oultivated such factors as the possibility of sproadir.g Iabour cn the fara over the «hole year as in fhdaaa eultivntion and Irrigation fhraing; the fertility and ease of working the landj and opportunitiee for off-farm employaeat ans known to affect farm acreage cultivated, The sine of Iabour (population) is howsver the aain deterainant of tho aereage of fbxm land cultivated in the Middle Belt as the amount of Iabour available in s hand Iabour cconomy iaposee definite liaitations on the acreage of land that could be cultivated. It would bc showa later in the study that the intensity of land uae and the perceatage of land cultivated as well as land tenure eyatemo in different parts of the study area Show high correlation vith population density. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 120 m m m m w js M a a a w The Organisation of agricultural land is on® of the aost oooples and isost delicata of probloas in rural ecouonic development, and it haß bocn recognised that "tmditlonal famiag aoibodo aad syatoaa of land tenure inkLMt an «taaaiv* «so of l&nd for t& m kog* aad eoaatitut# iapodiaaato to effielent agricultar® in Nigeria (Nigeria, \%2). Tha naed to « ataino the present land tenure ayataa in mlafclon l© -ähe Kopulation daaalty aad to ito effects cm ruml dareloprnent in tho »fcdy area can se&rcoly bo eve .̂ ararhasiKed, The accelemtion of ita agricultural derv-lopmmt dspenda to a largo oxtent on Iho poasibility of free jaoveaont aad sottlernent of faraers in different jarte of the area, of portionier reltvouc® to a pari of tha study area is Olu- «asaami*» Observation that "land is not the lin&ting factor of & i m is ligerian agricultur© b u t ...... t saure sys ton and social Organisation whiah «ander it virt »lly üapoeoibls for faxxu»rs to aov© fresly fron r gtons of high population denaity to aroaa ©bare land is in exceas aupply aro the real faciors lisdting both tho acale of Operation end the volunse of output ln agrlculture”, (clumaeanai, H. 4. I960 » 254-241). The study area providea contraating exaaplos of areao vhoro fr©® movement and sattleseni of faraors ar© poasiblo and arons where ‘vaeaat* agrio ltural land aay not b© &v ilabl© for agricultural development oving to the aoeiatenee of a coaplsx land teour* syatea» Obiactävea In this study, land tsnuro ia rogardad as "the body of rulee ehich govom the allooation of land, the pme f los of eultivation and th© UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 121 apportionnant of rodtn« as well m tfcs hole rolntionahip of oan to tho soll" (mtkO 1965* 105), Th© interrolßtlonshlp h#tw»«a the a&rie-’ltuml popxilatlan and thö control of land reeource* la consido-od ©f parajBount iapo rtanec beca -s© land teaur® etructures aro cloonly tl®d with rural econoaiö developaent. The ohjöctivoa ©f thla chapter ar© the^fore two-*foidi ( l ) to exajat»® th® charaotoriotics and tnends in tfce laad tcrrnm systens} and ( i i ) lo discttoa the isplieatloas of th® preo®nt haaA tmmm ayaten for ivml ©conoa&o doraloiÄöat in thi< study » ea. in achieviny these objeotive® m mk® th© followtag asauaptioas: (!) t&tfc th® groarfeh ia population, laad teaurc has a natural tondancy to ovo2vo fron a comauaal syotua of ownersiiip t© a syst©» oi individual faaÜjr oaer* ahipj (2) Owand for agricultural Imd in aroas wilh locational admat&g© such aa dev lo;*od transportable» and mrketiag facilitia® for faro ©rop® leads to the devolopiaent of individual otmerohip of agrieultural laadj (3) Inteiwssonal differential* la tho availability and aase of aequisiiloa of faraland in Higerta laad to & redistribution of ruml population and Inoreasod agicultural troduotion. Agricultural land in Nigeria i* uaually regardad as cos® mally ounod (Meek, C« IC* 195*7) $ and ttiJLs cosBunal owmnship has b®on defined a® *%h® Situation in «feie* a eomwalty osaroiso® control, ooeupstion and ueo of a landed proparty« U h» right, of tranafor and revemion i® ©roroisod oaly by the OMWtaliy as a vhole" (Adegboyo» 6» 0* 1964)* Thls tradltional viev of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 122 land OißjersMp iß Nigeria doea not t;..li© .Lato accouat the v&ri-d laud tenure aystcra» assnag; different oonaunitiee iß Nigeria es thsro aro "aa mxi'j taaura aytsi-crja ae ihere are eihaie groups” (Oluwcutami« H, A« 1966t £5). Apart fvom ©ihnio gsovpiag« in Bfgsrla, the fora of Mad tenttr© i » also affocted by the dsnslty of Population and the form of Isad-us# inder» takae in different parta of ins oountry. The fast that aoeial Organisation and rel&iioanhipe ara aubjeot fco changes thron# tisw also inflnenoes tha type and ehangoo taking place in laad taiärure systm*. Tvo System ©f land t m & m aro rcgsgBlsod iß the study arsat (i) Gosamml oimsrahip ©f land, and (ii) Fi ef-holde and individual fnaily ownerahip of land. Buch btt be■ ein written on the aubjett of ccnauaal ownerahip of land in Biferia* and in this aection ve hiffclight tho «ain fe&turea aal trcads in comtnal land tenuro in the study a oea, The a reas «höre coosunal ownssxw ahip of land is Sn VSgu« are the apsntely pspulatod Die Ui cts of tho atudy aroa« .hese an? in tho Low Dsneity and le&ttai Umsity idstricts giv©a in Table 5 «i ih the «xception of badoggi» AfcOja To« and igaie Sorth (hintifi) Distr.cts uhor partial fiaf-hold« and individual faaily smsrahip arc foond ( n s . 13). * ?br de tolle ©f traditional land t omre syst as in Nigeria# seej (i) Heek, C, h. <1357), laad.tstt^o and..AriwiniafraUaa in. ftiaala and tho Casorooaa, (London;* (ii; Col®# C» tf. (1343), -©.aort an .Land Tona»v. Niger ? ovinco, (K&duna}| and for a euaiary of the rnam concepts» o e Clnmaiaal» ff. A. (1966;, äfl&ft (London;, pp. 25-31. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fi g 13 . UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 15 123 In «he »farsely pepwlated land i® regaHUiA as th® pto~ p#rty of the sormmlly and land 1® h»M and ©oöirolled by th® aosaBtl&ity &® ® «Ml»» Aathoüty 1» land nattera i® veetod %& the v il to f i hsud «M ebenerer new land io to bo opened ap anyrihsr® or a stmnger ®©ek» land on Mch to fam and setile» fcha HUag» head has fco be consnliod. Any öin*» r-'-t® «Ith regR-d to fa -mlaad 1» rjfe rred to th® Villag© h*nd who, in eons ltation with th® older« aettl-'ö tbr d?®pwt«, .'ho «illag« h «d is «0*rded ao ihs "land lo-d" (not to b® oMltoBod «H th "lm^lord")» derieiag- M s immm and a* thority with awgnrd to tho land by ei rtuo of hia o fflc la l Position. Hia « thority ©vor- th® land 1« not personal to hin and is only exoreiaod öfter consuItalien ;-dth and in coafomanco with th© decisina® of th® oldere, without whoo# oonflont and Agreement h© co Id not act* fho poaaaat eultivator has by virtue of M s BKjaboj-ahip of tho village c«»mity a right of ua®r» and thia ho anjoyo in porpetuity for as Ions ad ho doo.dos to ns® th® laad in a aannor benoficial to hi® and to hi® Tillaß® coaraurdty. äs long aa tho fawaer contribuice M a o m quat® t© tho oaia» tenanoe of the viUaga coamutUy (in fons of iribut® to the 4®tr, bofore th® British ruio, but aow in form of laooae tax (HaraüJ to tho Loa 1 äu thority) ho hia Sh# usnfructuary right to eelßot, us« and ocoupy st̂ ch of tho coim-ral land a® may be aeailable for hin oocupation and uoo and as ••y be roquired for hia dejxmduit® * nooda. He rotalns a l l the pxoeeoda fron th© land and tilla th® land uattl it ia oxhnnstod and net worth cultiwatiag f>.rtbor, H® thon «eloota another eite following «hioh ho larodia ‘ ely lose® all right® in f,bo ferner pieoe of land, «Mch rmmrta to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY % 124 the VAlStga pool* He hovever haa « right to the ssylrm jvoduc© on the land for ihre© yoara aftor he haa ab&ndoned lt* Aftor that, the treos boeon© freo for all and anybody ©an c lloct iheir psrodaee, in tbe m m waj as thay can collect fron treee in th© uneultivnted bush* Tabl« 19 cfcowB thnt large pereentages in the apars ly pojttlated Districts of Bmri (Wko), Sofern, Palko mä tw m sm n (Paadogari) ar© cbtained froa oo«aunal land# whilo apart fram the fadaaa fanaß whiofc the im igrant population rerard an btlng cn 1om to thsa, faralands in the four öietiicts ar© eaaentially ooozsuaally ouned. tkmm ie however a tand- aney for faraera to aasua© that fadaaa fa.tm ar© inhorited froa tho lr puren fco ao fkdajrma are contiauoualy eultiv&ted« In coutraat to the coo- isunally ©anod faralsnde in the aparsely pöyul&tod areas» famlands in J im / Dok» and Katcha Matriot© ar© in fix«d handa and oniy 7.6 and 3.6/> rcapaot» ively of upland fara (and non© of fhdana) aoveage© ar© obtained froa ooa~ aunal land. « jB JM ftffl. at ja a .r t it .m t , Th© broad concopts of oosnamal ownorship of land d©»crib©d abov© ©tili prevall in the sparseiy populatsd district# of the study aroa» thougjh thore ar© owrtain trmda räleh ose es» recogniae as gradnally load» ing to the ©volutiea of individual ©waorship of farnlands» Aaong thee© ar© the follovingi (i) Certnin apeeifio a m « of viUagß fnraland ar© being rocogniaed aa ihralands »usually» eulfcivsted by cortain fand lies. For oxanple, at Kaapant Gbanta village about 2$r olles north-eaot of Falte», the famlanda UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 7 A B L S 19i m H ä ü As.*, m.H, . . I «iS » . «. 1.1 » mmito mr m m 1 * ni.m'. . i V ■ it M t i Willi * . AiWL Population Matriet Denoity- farm Type Average Coaaunal Iahoritooca Lea; >e or fiift Total por/n l.2 Aerm gß k m 36 P Katcha 84 Öoaa* 4.6 3*6 46.5 43.1 6*6 100 I M M » 2 2*5 «ft 23*0 74.2 2*3 100 (Jona1 5*2 7*6 41*2 49.3 1.9 100 JiiWdo' found in Etraagoma Diatricta; Southern Zarin trifcal groups, FUlani and Hupe, are found as «eitler* at faiko vhile all over Abu^a i-ssirate are found Kausa (nalaly frora «aao in Kaao State), Hupe, iiassa and Gwandara settlers par icularly in Beari and Kuje üiatriots as at 7* 165)* Ihr adainletrative purpooos and fo r mey collection of tribute 3» the Pulani oon:f«arors paroelled out the lande of eaon eairate into «States and gare the» out m fiefe to ailitary leetders# snsbers of the royal hounohold, Hallans and personal frionda, Thls feudal arraagaßaat eubjeoted the con- quered populatlon to Fulani rule and guarsnteed regulär flow of tribute as revmue caa© fron eotatos f&rtsed by »lavoc and clientalo, walle froe a m wer© obliged to render produce and labour# Tho Pulani üjirateo of Northern Nigeria wer© conquered by the British early in thls C e n tu ry » and Lugard arrogatod to the British th e u lt in s t ® rights in the land (thougfc th e rights rw ra o in e d uudeflned) and d e c la re d that "tho land in theory belonga to th® Suserain» hitherto the Fhlaai lötr» and now the Britiah OcTemment". Thls deolaxstian foraed the basta of the Lands and Nativ» •tlghts Pr-oc lasst tion (1910, aaended in 1916) which conferrod upon gevomaent absolute oontrol and ownership of land in Northern Nigeria* In the exeroiee of his powere Section 5 of the Ordinanco, howovor, required the Govomor to have "rogard to the native laws and custons existing in tho UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY % 131 aistrict in which such land is situated". This section of the Ordin&nce, arguee Cluwasanmi, "is in effect a confirwation of the customary rights of the individual peasant to occupy and uee a portion of the land of his community"* (Oluwasanrai, H. A . 1966SJM+). The high density of population in the Nupe Districta of Lemu, Jiraa/ Doko, Badeggi, Katcha and Agaie North (Kintifi), which are all situated east of the Biver Kaduna (Cis-Kaduna), owe its origin to the historical fact of the Fulani conquest of Nupe land. After the conquest, the Fulani rulers with their huge army of warriors, slaves, courtiers and other depend- ants iminigrated into the Districts, where they settled, occupied the land, and built their Capital and numerous villages (Madel, S . F. 19*»2: 11). Similar Settlements also took place in Abuja Town District of Abuja Emirate, Following the dislodgement by Fulani of the Habe King of Zazzau frora Zaria in 1804 he settled in Abuja with his forces, Consolidated his defences and attracted a large number of Bettlers into Abuja Town District. The Dis- tricts in *Cis-Kaduna* and the Abuja District of Abuja Emirate therefore owe their present relatively high population denaitiea to these two historical settlements. The high population densitiea has led to the development of a complex syatea of land o mership and land transfer and this, observed Dr. Nadel, "re- flects the attempt of the people to counteract the pressure on the land". (Nadel, S. F. 19^2* 181). All farmland is in fixed hands owned mainly by members of the royal houses of Bida and Agaie, fiefholders, former warriors and slaves as well as Mallams who Claim ownership of the land as inheritance UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 132 fix® their ancestoro who bad either unoa farned the land# o.mod the oatito or had tiie land granid to tiieo by a ferner i-'uiani itei? or a powerful feudal lord* ln 1906» Lugard reported thafc ther» wäre 16 fiefholders in Hupe idVision (Lugard, D* 7* i 906j 6J&}, and ln 1943 tha Chief 3ortbe of Äda Local Authority ccmpilad a liat of 147 fiefholders ouoiag land ln 427 villages in ilda •riLrete (national Arehvroa iilo Ho» B 1322* 17-21)* Burin® the field survay, the liat of fiefholders could not be coapllod wi tbeut the co-oporation of the Local Äuthority, fable 19 howovor shom the asristance of individual ounership of fanalnd in the pe rem tage of total eoreoge of farsland on loan er leaoe fron flefholde s at dina/Boho and Hatcaa Met riete - 49*3^ of upland (sBft)» 68,3, of lowland and 43.1/ of upland and 74*2/ of levland fa ms respeetivaly. Thi« Is in eontrast to the Situation in the spare«ly populated Hape Bietricts whero no upland faxe is on loan or lease tenas shil« veiy low j* rcantagea of fa&ana fl .ius eere on loan or lease teras - 18.7/ at Mokaa» 15*2/ ai Kwangoesa» 12*1/ at Falko and none at Ewari. in addition to thsao* it aaa found during the field surre y that about 70/- of fürs land at Boku and 6ü/< at hutirüso» nortto- euot of Agaie m s "©«ued' by the Lsair of ügaie* Qv@r & £ of the land in Jiiaa/boko Bietnet is ‘owned* by öida fiofUolder faailiee and of thio the Yerioa (deputy to the Emir) *own' about half} -tau ümaaa ruling Uouse a quarter and the rmaiaiaf quarter is ownsd by ihe Lakun and dhesi fanrllieo wille only about 46/ of the total fhralaad is owaed by the oocupying peasantsy* Virtually all the farmlaad at logt and Vunchi vlllagea bclongs to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 133 thö Teriiaa and bis agenta st Kuacgi vi liege* . Faxxlands st Katcha Matrict belong ia '.he rata, to the Stau Usman rrling icusa, thc -Shaal faaily and other Jkllama and fiefholders st Bida* The tnHaam. famland, in «lößhigi in Leim öiatilet, ia clalmed by the äJaman Zarid. ruling Heuse of Bida and thlo ia in spite of the land being declarod a ‘sattleseat area* for the establishaent of the Bdozhlfi Irrigation sctotmo, Juch area« of faxnlasd which are not clalned by fiefholders in the ’Cio-Kad’ma* Bistricta are •ovned* by the iadiTldnal fnnilie» of the local pojrulatlon, «Mio ther« iß also found an indigenoi» landlesa Clans of fernere whoee paronts have bet» tenante on estatea of flefholders* The present Situation ia auch that land cannot be claiiaed on the grounds of serabsrship of tho village cooswnity nor oan the local ferner exerolse hia right of oceupnnoy* ln offect, a da facto Individual owaership of land haß evolvod in the •Cis-Saduna* Distriete of Bida and Agaie üairates. Zn the predominaatly Bauaa Abuja Seim Distriot, the re haa beea a definite develoraent of the conoepts of (i) fanily and individual rights of inheritfincc on particular piecea of land uhlch have been fomerly faraed by anccstorsj and (2) the continued owneraiii? of trees on abendonod fextts, A sind lax tendency for individual owaarshlp of land to inoreaee in other Hansa «mite of Northern Higoria haa been obaexved by iowling (1949) in Kaao Provinoe, by Col* (1948) in Zarin province and by Lüning (1963 and 1965) in Kfttsina Province, Thorr &loo «arista the idea of individual fallow lande aß dietinet fron a general oonmunal fallov, ’shile the fadnaa is kept under «ore or leas conatant cultivation with very ahort reating porioda betuoen UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 134 the civpping eeaaons so that individual ownershlp of fudana. io an acknotf- ledgod fjict. individual family land owneraliip in Abuja Town M st riet ia geaerally scooptod by the consmuaity uhieh Vennrds 1t as aa inevitable ccm- * seqoence of population growth. lt iß sigalflesnt however, ttoat apart f*oa a 15-aor« piece of fa&aaa reaoxwd for th# titlsd claas eimtAm. sarnuta. there ar« no ffiefhold» or ats antos laadlord© iß Abu ja ?cm Distriet and evm in the itoole of Abuja SaArate, Thia original syatea of Habe land tonuro io in aharp contrast to !h© baeically feudal syst©» penrpstuated by the rulimj yulanl in Hupe land. lour facto ns hav© probably bton miponsibl© for the evclution of individual family o«morahip of land ln tfee ,vis~fadtma* Sistriets. ( 1 ) The high deaaity of population? (ii ) The Institution of fiofholds following Fulani conquaat of Hupeland and the Adoption of lolaaio religion Aich recogaisoo individual ownerchip of landj (lil) The cooaercialisation o f «gUftuttv» particularly the Ci’owiziß iaportaaoe o f rice as a caah erop with conse-juant iaeraase in the valu© o f fadaen suitable fo r rice production. (iv ) The locaticnal advantfig of ♦ds-Kaduna* Distriets foHotdag the greater development of markatiisg .und tVMSoporlatUnt facilitice as well xs th« c u lta x a l a tta «h ae n t to the Distriets. Ae at&ted earlier, the *Cta-"nd na* Diotricta hatte higft population denaitios, and the «volution of an individual family ovnorehip of lond aay be rogarded aa an atteapt by the cossa nlty to rogulate land use «aong th© UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 135 Population. Population, pressure on the land was cvon nore severe in the paot ae higher population denaities were previoualy racorded in the Distriats. For instanco, the populations of Jima/ßoloo and Badeggi lha- tricta in the 1931 Oens-s war* 31*761 (112 persona per square mile) and 21,143 (47 persona per aquar* adle) reapeativoly, whil© in 1952, the iiomlation of the District© feil to 22,699 ( 80 persona per aquar© mile) and 15,325 (34 peroons per square raile) respectively, These show that population pressure on the land m a aore severe in the past than at present, 00 that therc wie a nced to reg-.lato land usage by the mcognition of individual faaily ownerahip, Tho Institution of fiefholds haa been upheld and perpetuated by the iuling Pulani and haa thus becoue pari of ihe socio-econocic Organisation of Eups life iespits its bsing at variance with the Lunds and La Live »siahta Pro damit Ion (1910) and Lugard'a Claim in 1906 .hat "the old fiefholders (in Hupe Division) have been aboliahed". (hugard, D. F. 1906* 030). The Islaaic Law of inheritanoe (iialiki Law) is being invoked to support the perpetuation of fiefholds, and when in 1944 this state of affairs was officially brou#it to light and the colonial adainistration iufonaed the BI da Local Authcxity that the practica of fiefholds was not in accord with the 1910 Proclaraation, the Bida Local Authority held a eontrary view and insisted that it m s "in accordance with Section 5 of the Ordinanoe whioh readß; *the Power of the Governor shonld be exereised with ragani to Native Laws and Custoas*". The local Authority put fomard the view that vhat was being paid by the reasant faraer was "1 Zakat *. an Arabic m rä m-aning ' Uthe', a religious Obligation for a raoalara to give out of hi3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 136 or fa producta a preecrlbed porfcioa mitfa eincere and pious in 1 ent~ Ion of g iv iu g \ (Kationai iröhiveo, Kad.-uc» StiaF: of File No. 8 1352» p* 5). Iie patre» (fiefholdar) oee« M s tenant eor.plinentary Obligation«* ao a latioaehi p of atro:»*» and prtbctlon (alboit nov cboolatej) asiato betweOn th< olieut Cbarav) and the fiefhoidor* Thia still xrnain* the officio 1 ri®rf of Bida and A#al* Local lutJierities, despite th® ondortaiing givon by the :2tau Nupo of Bida o» 15tb Seetabor» 1545 thnt he hat '’inotraci* ad all thn ftefhoiderr» in Bida tonn that the eaipts of preseat* voluntary or invcluntary hivc been prohibited aa frors Deecr.ber the 14th, 1945”. Aft to the Attitüde of faraere to the pajB-mt of tribut?, iable 20 indicates tfeat a large porc »tsje (38.4f) of trlbute-peylnff fixere interviewed we re against the payment of --Izanlsa« whieh tfeey not# rtfard m & fom o f exploitation» and its continuod passent ia ihu» a souroo of latent diecontent aaong the local peasantry* The faot that t io occupier caaaot purchase the land for money further perpetuetee the fiefiioldor'a hold on the land and aobjeeta the occupier and hia descondanta to perpetuel tenancy so that a clana of lnndlo d and landlose peasant is graduell? proving up. 'ho grc'dnr cotsaeredaliaation of agrtculturc* partlc Larly the production of rioe an cash c .cp has oncouKiß.d fhmers to c-neolidnte fcfceir holdinge especlnlly the fsdapan whieh are aoat euitable for rlco production. 5b.o fiofheidere and ‘land-o.nerö* honre also offectivaly cstafellrixed thoir *OMtterahip* of farstlnn-lo so that ffcey cm give out tho fxrffilands on lease and loan (n,rq. hnyn) t o r m and rece-’ve Ignhka (now paid in both cash and kind) fron ihose vho oceupy the famland. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * ■ 137 Tabls 20 Tarn; rAMBJB a a A titm M & M ^ jm ä is s s L Tributs Faying In Support of A m inst Tribute Farmers Ihme»* Tribute Payaant Payment*Matriet Intsrvlewed So. So, So. Jima/Poho 35 22 62.9 3 13.6 19 36.4 Katcha 38 21 55.3 2 9.5 19 Sk« 5 Total 73 43 53.9 5 11.6 38 33,4 * Percentae« based on the viewo of famera vho pay tribute as thooo vho da not pay tribute are laad o-«erc or agents wbo givo out farmland on lease or loan terms. Source* Meid Survey Questionaalre Analysis. Thua wo ooo that th« higher deneity of population in ths »Cie-Kadtma’ Mstrlcts of Kupsland and in the Abuja Tour* Pia tri cts of Abu^a ffe&rate hns lod to th© evolution of M i l l o a l faaily ©unorUhip of land. The ovolution of individual IHmily ©«norship of land has beon further «nhaneed by the psrsiatenee of a sooio-pelitieal ormnioatlon (reinforced by Is Samte ruligion) which perpetu&toa the old fiefholdo as well aa by the Ineroasing ooaaaBrcialioaUon of agricultum, It Kay be observod however that rnlike in other doneoly populated parts of Horthem Higerla such as Kam» Provinco ( 'Ovling, C. tf. (1949) and /laria (üole, G. V. 1948}, «höre occupanoy UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY H 138 rights «re accepted aa vulid in the evolution of individual tenure of farm- lands, occupaney rights are not valid as Claim to ownership of land in ,Cis-Kadun&* Oistricts of Nupeland. Th« usufructuary right öf the furmer csn b« terminated at will by the 'land owner' af happened to two farme re &t £dogi in Jisu/Doko Üietrict ahortly before the cropping season in 19&9 following charges of lateness in rendering daanka to th« fiefholder. In- heritance of anceatral lande, which is regarded aa th« 'normal* ««ans of land acquiaitisn in th« Kano Clo«e-*»ettlad Zone (Mortimore, H» J. and «iloon, J. 1965* 10), ia applicable mainly to the deacendants of fief« holdere and th« nobility in this relatively densely populated üiatricts of Nupeland. In the 'Cis-Kaduna* Districta the »arketing of farm produce and th« transportation faoilities have been developed, tiiereby providing aseured market® and high prices for th« fsrmer’s producta, Ther« are many periodic market« where the farmer can s«ll his producta to itinerant trädere (euch an at Blda, Doko, Jims, Baaeggi, Agai«, Lernu, Kateha and Bare). In addition to the market centrea, transportation faoilities - roade, rail and river tränsporta - are better developed and theae aid the evacuation of farm produce within th« Mstricts es well au to other market centrea of the forest and faudan zones of Nigeria, huch market centrea na budeggi, Katch« and daro are served by rail while both Kateha and daro are important inland porte on th« aiver Niger. On the other hand, the sparsely populated Oie- tricts where farmere do not pay tribute suffer frorn poor marketing and poorly developed seasonal transportation faeilities. whereas the farmer in the 'Cis-Kaduna* Districts can seil hin products in nearby markets the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY % 139 faasor in tho offcor dlatricts 1s oftoa not aoaurod of aarketo for his producta, as happoned at lebu in K*ali Matrict of abuja in 196ü «bare $Mtt had t© be boxet or left to rot away as thore wero no tradora to jwrchas© or raoana of tranaport to «vaouate tho yaae, fhe looatioaal advuntagea possooa» ad by tho »Cis-ßaAma* Diatrleto continuo to nahe tho area attractivo to faraers, «ad thua noko thoa sdUiag to p&y tribnte to fioffcoldera rather than eaigraie to districto shero mrkoting and trana;>ortation fadlitios for fara cropa «re poorXy devolopod. '£h© naaeeoo of tho öiatriota to tho Hupe cmltural oapitale of Bida and Agaie further strengthena tho attaebaent of tho farraers to tho Matrlots (rogirdloon of tho payar .f umlands, uhile— 3006 fiefholdere encourage their tonarvb to uee fertilisers (thourfi at a priee) on their fadhaa fartaa, üwea though fawaors in the eparsely populated Mstriets as well as aoao farsaora in the densely pojnlsted IHatricts eajoy «nough ©aeurlty at tanuro to alle* thaa to invest on the land and aafce long-terra iaprcrfwawnte, the lack of regle tered title aakaa it iapoasible for the farner to oort- gage hie land in raieing Capital tax Xon^-tona iaproveaent of hie faaalaad. Pooeibilitiee of both azaali scale and large ßcale Irrigation proieeta (Ödst all am v the study area portioularly along th© flood plaine of river® Niger, Eaduna, Gboko and other eaetter rivero, and theae await Capital to oonplecieat the «cisting irrigation culture for thoir devolopacnt« th e farner is usu&lly unable to provide oapital wiiioh le eooemtial to the introduotion cf new toehniqueo, and hie lack of euf fiel ent e&vinga and Xiffiited poooiblXity of raising credit tteuld oerloualy affect agrioaltnral davolopnent* aiiyyybLjOHMBi It bas boan auggested that innobillty ©f fhnwro due in part t© the o atonary rules forbidding alienation of land to strängera eay have plnced an obstaole to an ©ffielent uso of land, cauatng low prodvctisrlty as well ae contrtfcuting to the uneven dietributicm of pepulatioa in Bigerla (Adegboye, a. 0. 1967* 346)* Obaervationo on the fiold do not aeera t© oonfixta theae views «nt Ire ly though they are valid in cartu in reepeete, hsvo aoted m r l ie r in the ciiapter that lanlgzaat fsnaera fron oliier UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ft 142 parts of Northern Nigeria are attruotod to the sparsely populated Q m ti and Xaanku tribal Oistrieta* Thls ioaigratioa bas rosulted ln incroaao ln rural population and ruml land use afl in Buari and Keangona Distrioto# With regurd to tbs ♦üis-Kaifamtt* Sistrioto» Ihraara with insufficient land wäre reluotant to soigrato as a rssult of the locational advantage ixjsooai» od by Ute Dißtricta, Al noted earlier, a&rfeoting of Ihr» products and transportation fioilities are wall dsvoloyed uhilo the aroa oontinuos to bo the oentro of SUpe cultural Life. Viarwod froa the Higeriaa national point of Tiesr» the seoaingly open door policy of attxncting iaaigrante to the eparssly populated Mstriets is lioltcd in its applieation* Isoigranto whcwe permanent honea are in othor parts of Northern Nigeria and «hos© aodo of life and cultural bacl> ground aro aiallar to those of the rsoelYing coas&mitieo are roadlly sottlod# Inaigrrmta fron the Southern States are elther not intereatod in fhrsing (as they «re raainly traders and artlsans) er are not enoouragod to tahe tip agricultural land ander the oysten of comimal ownerahip of land, The defuaot Biger kgrl cultural Projeot locatod in Hokwa Diatriot offors a good Illustration of the liaitation to the poseibility of attmoting settlero fror, othor parte of Nigeria to aid agricultural developient in the area. In oonnoction with the selootion of settloro for the defunot Projeet, ifeldwln obeerred that "it aal gwnerally accopted that the local people would oppoee the introduction of aettlers firm other areas and that a a y attesapt to do so would only ereate socio Logical and political dirfic tltioo UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 143 »hioh v*al& pxejvuiice tho «hole schere#" (Baterla* ft. B, 3 . tgf?» 49)* fhi# obeermiioa t f s t iU m U d ia fc# p r m U la f ilron»llt»n« i> tfc# prooodure for qualifytng by oouthom SigwiMMi for a te a te a r y uawr..itcaa tit le * 1.«* the mtm t i t l e m tbot ea^oyad by n native of the Borthem fxovinces of Slgertft» i* crcabereent aad in aay caae, *th© proeedur© haa beea eoapcoraioed m m oo rtifiea te of M s safte** (of oecupsaoy ) im mos bom iwue4*. (Cole, C, «* 1949* 54)* Tia» we so« that fro® the eoöio~ politioaX aad lo^ül peiat» of vi«vt aoMUty of famero int© the eparsoly piguletod % » tri c ts i s lin ito a , la tb ie m m H» Cluwaeaasä observod tbnt "Population ia not m probiere ia XlpiiSi arten oonaidered a a s te t the to ta l »jrfaee «re». I t is a sericus p ro b te aa social bar-riora pvm m t a rational a llom 'ion of the land rmow-om lo tho co ntry" (oh»m#nmXt 11*1* 1966: 73)* Ädegboye*® oboervailon (1967t 346) &*t sub-leaaing a rmgwimta «tf* rooo to esjOAitstlon of th© tanaent culttetpr is quite relevant to the exiattag condition in the »Cis-Ka^wm* Biai.-Actß* Of the 63 f&raere iaterviovod at Jiaa/SeS© « 4 Xhteh* Sdstiäct.?., 37 or 58.7/- sre trlbate-pay»* iag fexaers «he pay tributo an evar 60, of tho total aoreag® of th e ir fferalaad»« The tributo varloualy texsfid Ampfea (fcith*)# ^tmk^a #? /Oharfca /hap. (•blooainß1 tbat lay on tho te&)* Akctl e r t a t a , (g ift) wa the ferner anoual v illase tos paid by «fssy fassily to tho ohief e r ftatf» holder ia r -cosaltioa of the protection afforued ho oomuaity* Ia othor geu"ls of üfcrthem Sigerla, asaual iaecsae tax Qlara.ti) haa beaa a-betitutod UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY f! 144 for Qganka (Sultan of Sokotos 1 9 ^ Homo: 3?3G3*210» but in hupeland the Fulanl rulers perpetuateg its payment on fiefholds in addition to the annual income tax, and in effect, negates the occupaney rights of the peasant former And subjects hica to double taxation. Thie is contrary to the Provision and intontion of the Lands and Native Rights Froclamation (1910). The Suggestion (based on lölaraic religion) by the Bida Local Authority that the payment of dzanka was voluntary offerings by the pea- santry who liked paying the was not supported by the facta as Table 20 indicated that 88.#' of tribute-paying farmere were against its payment. There were no standardized tribute rates demanded by fiefholders, (though the rate was generally assumed to be one-tenth of produce) as the rate depended on the personal relationship between the fiefholder and th« tenant-farmer. There is now a teadeney to uniform rate of tribute pay- able both in cash and in kind. For the lease of an aere of fadama, the fiefholder charges £>2 t 10/- in cash before cultivation and 2 kondos - 168 lbs. of grain after harveat. For upland farm, the tributes are £1 t 10/- and 1)4 kondos (126 lbs. of grain) per acre. Apart from the cash payment, the tribute in kind a»ounts to 11.6^ and 10.9$ of yield per acre respectively. For seasonal tenantship whereby the fiefholder pro- vides the seedling and the tenant provides the labour, the fiefholder's share is half of the yields. For upland farms loaned for guinea c o m production, the fiefholder rcceives on© bündle of grains (60 lbs.) which is 9.2% of the estiaated yield per acre (650 lbs.). In addition to the tribute payment, the tenant farmer is responsible for the storage of the grains tili when the grains c&n fetch high prices and in many cases he is UNIVERSITY O IBADAN LIBRARY 'y 145 rssgonsible for carrying the graios to the- fiofholder* Tbus so so© that, oontrary to ovfling’s Observation in Km » Province ■hat land is valuelos* to tbo w »ho does not work it (Bowling 1943» par»# 170), the absenteo flefholde? in Supeland livsa on the proeeeda of Mfl fara- land Isased to teas&nt farners« The zenlisation that land oan produee an inoooo, apart fro» ita user, ptovided ♦ownemhip* ean bc ©atabllahcd in addltion to the relatively hi£& population donaity, has lod to th© ozploita- tion of psasani fnrasra and th® t ndency to extead Claims of inherltaac© to vae&ai lands« Tb« peaaaat ferner ia thu* öenied bis usufrttotuary ilght and tho moaas aß voll m the Incentives to imveot cm hia famlands* It ohould bc nctod bc wovor that ths exploitation of the pcaaant ferner thrcußfc tribute payment does not exist in the sparsely populated Sistricts« k i a H w The syetem of communal osnership of land in the sparsely populnted Distriote allotfs extensiv» uss of land in »grlcultu.ro, and faralaads are often abaadoned after tvo or tfaree consscutive eroppdngs only. Tho u m of fertilisers is not common aa oaly t6*2/ of fst-iaers interviewsd in the Dis» fcricts ue© fortiliser min ly for their fhflaoa ries farms* fhraltmds stu>» ro ndinp the faraers* hut {Conpo»md land • (bassû idda) which are oontimsowo- ly cultivated ar© howaver maxurod vitfo housohold r e g n m and animal droppings. In the donaely populated Pistricts «her© individual faally emership of land is the rule, famlands are ore intensively eultivated and with tim aid of fertiliser» yields per acte *re hinter thac whore extensiv© oultivation is the rule« In addition, emphasis is on high iaeyse-yislding crops such an UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ‘V3 146 rite» eaien, pepper and other ve'getables, Hany uplond faras are cuKlvntod continuoualy for up to fivo yoare while coa. ), while the Sudan zone produces these crops on a large scale. Food crop production in Nigeria is usually regorded as the •subsistenee' or 'stagnant* sector of Nigerian agriculture. Tt is our view, hovever, that the terra 'subsistenee agriculture* is a thing of the past as large proportions of food crops produced are Bold for cash particularly in the Middle Belt where food crops for the farmer's 'cash crop' and monetary income received frora food crop production, now closely rival monetary income derived from export crop production. The eurprisingly small nuraber of crops grown exclusively for household conaurption iß a striking proof that food crop production is not oynonyraous with subsistenee agriculture. In fchia Connection, it hoc been observed that *as farm produce of all typeo ia apt to be sold, there is no senee a 'subsistenee sector'" (Polly Hill, 1968s 2^2). To the farsner any crop whieh bringe adequate cash returns ia as good as any other whether the crop is to be exported to other countriee or taken to othsr parts of Nigeria for aale* f rofitability and adequate returns therefor® form the basis of crop production and hence farraers in the Middle Belt con- centrate on the production of food crops such as rice, yam, guinea corn, miilet, cowpeas, beans, onion, pepper, tomato and calabash of which the Middle Belt has a compsrative advantage, thereby comple- menting the production of export crope in the Sudan and Forest zenes of Nigeria. It has been suggested that "the problera of increasing product- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY * 172 ivity and enlarging supplies of staple foods are of critlcal importance to the future eeoneric development of troplcal Africa (Johnston, B. F. 195*3) and that "the most certain way to proraote industrialisation ... is fco rals« food crop production” (Lewis, H. A. 1933s 2), In addition, the need to seerare a substantial incresae in food crop production was particularly stressed in the reports of the International Bank Mission to Nigeria 1951*) and the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (Ö.N.F.A.O. 1965)* In this regard, if we accept Jncoby’s definition of agricultural development as nthe process of making fuller and more rational uee of the agricultural resources of a oountry with special reference to improving the efficiency of agrieulture and the level of living of the agricultural population" (Jacoby, E. H. 1953* 3)» then the pro­ duction of food crops in the Middle Belt 1s in eonformity with the process of rural economic development. The production of food crops need not be aasociatedl with subsiatence agriculture as export crops do not have the monopoly of acting enly by itself as "engine of grovth". Under present condition of rieing population and urbani« zation in Nigeria, the production of food crops ln the Middle Belt is itself an "engine of growth" in the sense that it provides food for the population in the production of export crops and industrial development in the export crop and urban areas of Nigeria as well as generate local income and stimulate trade within the Middle Belt and internal exchange in Nigeria. Crops Grown UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ' 173 The agricultural syetem in the three agricultural zones into which the study • rea ia divided is based on rot&tioaal bush fallow- ing combined with a well wor.ed out rotation of crops which h&s led to a aore or lese continuous cultivation in the JIma/Doko/Kstcha farffiing zone. Table 24 gives the main crop combiaations and rotation praetised on upland cultivation in the different farming zoaes. Xt should be noted that the t ble shows the main crop combin&tions in the rotation prevalent in the different farming aonos and not all the crops grown are shown in the table* An examination of the fnctors determining the choice of crops grown will be aade later but in the mesntime the following observationa about the table are relevant. The prectice of inter-cropping is one of the oost characterist- ie fenture of the agricultural production and this is auch more varied and intensive than is shovra in the table. On all the farme in the different agricultural zones, crops are interplanted success- ively on the same plot in such & w&y as to make for continuous growth of crops during the short growing season in the year. On a typical farm are grown simultaneouely such crops ae yans, beans, aaize, millet, groundnut and vegetables on the flanks and groundnut and vegetables in the furrows. In practice, nearly every available space is taken up by crops, and the spre&ding out of sowing and reaping periods enables the farmer to cope with the inter-cropping on his farm plot. Inter-cropping particularly constitutes the inten­ sive feature of agricultural production in the Jima/Doko/Katcha UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4* 174 Table 2k KAIN CROP C0M3INATI0NS AHD ROTATION (UPLAND CULTIVATIOM) Farming 2one Ist Year 2nd Year 3rd Year kth Year I. Mokwa/ Yara, Malze, Guinea com, Early millet, Iandogari beans, millet, cow- maize, guinea calabash, peas, corn, melon, Fallow vegetables, vegetables» groundnuts» late millet and cotton» IL Diko/Paiko Yaffi, early Late yam, Aeha or maize, cala­ guinea com, guinea corn, bash , CO w- millet, late millet, Fallow peas, melon» calabash, cowpeas» groundnut• IIL Jima/ Upland rice, Kaize, Upland rice, Maize, Go ko/ malze, late guinea corn, Katcha maize, late guinea com, millet, beans, red beans, red melon, red millet, pepper and pepper. vegetables. sweet potato, pcaespspearv,red a,and pveepgpeetarb les cotton. Source: Field Survey. farming aone also reflects the greater intensity of lkua/Bida/Badegi and Bida/ Zoogeru/Tegina roads and the conatruction of dry sesson feeder roads to the rail and aotor roads are also enhancing the evacuation of produce. Hany local tradora and traaaporters fron the forest and Sudan zonee of the country n w oporate conmercial lorry trsasport for the evacuation of produce to other Ports of Nigeria* The Higerian Hailuay Corporation also incroaood its Services an. the Hinna/Baro line fron once & veek in 1966 to thrice a woek in 1969 to cope vith the riaing traffic generated by inoreasiag denand for food crops in other parts of the country. All theee inprove- ncnts continue to faeilitate local moveraents of people and gooda and the evacuation of farm produce to other parts of Nigeria* The effect of the poor development of transportatIon in the study area has been the\ limitation of the level of producticra and markoting of food crops ouing to the difflculties of crop evacuation, Valuable tine is lost in collocting and transporting produce and in aost caaes, the cost of transpart accoiaxta for aver 35/>t> of the total value of food crops at the oonauming caatres. The number of intexmediaries - carriers» brokers, tradora and wholesalars is unneoessarily incroased leading to high marksting ooote and lau ptricos to färmere. Tables 26 a-c and 27 a-c sbow the value of the three m i n food orope produoed for aale and the Proportion of it ropresenting f ärmere* inccsne, transport cost and broker/wholeealers' profita. It can be aoen that far yams marketed at (foagwalada* the farmer recoivos OTf of the local price while his pcroentage share drops to about 40/ of the value UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 196 IABL8 26(a) . M iU f r # « « 3 . Local Total Sale Kiddie­ Period Itetum Middle- Trader/ Local Transport Priee nens * to aats' Broker's Coat to at ■argin at Farmer Bargin Commission Priee Ibadan Ibadan baden Fed.-April 1969 £12 m £2 £18 £10 132 £4 Hay-July 1969 £16 m £3 £24 £11 £40 £5 Gources Local priceo and interview with brokors and wlxoleaalers at Cvagwalada (Abuja). TABLE 26(b)i riiifflä!V C OM mREBTIHG C03T3 PT: BAG (100 KU3XTS*) Local Total Sale Kiddie­ Period ueturn Kiddle- Trader/ Local Transport Priee mens* to laens1 Broker*s Sale Cast to at tnorgin at Farmer margin Commission Priee Kaduna Kaduna Jan. 1960 25/- V* 2/- 31/- tfi/- 57 8 July 1969 40/- 5/- 3/- 40/- 20/- 78 10 * Local Standard measuro weighJng 2 lbs. 4 ose. A bag of grain contains 100 nuduB. Sourees Local priceo and interview with brokars and wholeaalora at Falko* T/jüa 26(c)t mä, Local Total Sale Period ueturn Middle- Trade*/ Transport Priee Middle- to mens* Brokers Sale Coat to at meaf Farmer nörgln CoEiaiaaion Prioe Ibadan Ibadan ■Iabxagdiann at Jan. 1969 84/* 12/— 2Q/~ 11^- 24/— 170/- 30/- July 1969 142/- *$/- 25/- 185/- 26/— 249/- 40/- * Local S ta n d a rd noaouro w e l̂ fc tin g 2 11», 12 ozs. A bag of grains c o n ta in s 100 audus. Source* Local prices and interview with brokers and wholesalers at Katoha UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY •M 197 u m SUlal> M umaan» <»«s (rs,; mb). Sale M c e Xk h m m * Incose Transport Hiddleaen'aPeriod at Ibadan Cost stargin £ * £ $ £ $ £ [ $ Ifeb.»April 1969 32 100 12 77.5 14 43.8 6 18.8 May-July 1969 40 100 116 40.0 16 40.0 8 20.0 n a g a M i m mm mim m m i Period Sale Priee Farmers* Incorae Transport Mddleaen'sat Ibadan Cost «argin Jan. 1969 57/- 100$ 25/- 43.9$ 22/- 30.6/ 10/- 17.5$ July 1969 1 8 /- 100$ 40/- 51*3$ 25/- 35.9$ 13/- 12.6$ im s M isi* tiß iu w a m . tm & M u m , Period Sale Priee Karners* Ineome Transport Hiddlaxaen1 aat Ibadan Cost «argin Jan. 1969 170/- 100$ 84/- 49.4$ 36/- 21,2$ 50/- 29.4$ July 1969 249/- 100$ 142/- 37.0$ 42/- 16.9? 65/- 26.1$ Souree* Tableo 27 (a) - (o) war© derivod fron Tables 26(a) - (o). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ■ 198 of the yam vßum sold at Ibadan the sain cansimnc centre. Transportation accounta for neorly 2Q^ of the local value and this rises to orer 40$ i**n sold at Ihadacu Feer coznparative purpoaes, the F.A.Q. eßtiaatsd tfcat ln supplying food crops from the Sudan to the forest sone, transpo^ costs alone «ccounts for about 2% of the cost in the forest sone and the F.A.O. regards this as far fron being oatiafactory (U.N.F.A.O. 1965). The same trend is coen in guinea com and rice calea, thougfa in the oase of rice the faroer receivos a higher proportian of its vnlue, ranging: between 49f and 57?' of the wholesaler,s ptrlco at Tbadan. This is due to the greater development of transportation facilitioa at Jiaa/Dobo-Katcha farming sone where road and rail transports are easily secured for produce evacuation to the consuming c ent ros of the forest and Sudan 80QMS, mja» tAmLmsAjff, „üts.iMm,,, mm „iaa Xaa Ouinea Com idee Harkst 12 Ihn. Ton Ton CU-d.U21b.4oa. 21b.1208. Ton Mokea 1/2 £10t16i=» 7d £29* =*8d. 1/9 E71* 5«5d. Paadogari 1/1 £10* »2*3 6d £24*17 *9d. 1 A £64:10:»d. Diko 1/1 CIO* 2*3 5d £20*14*10 1/5 £51 Paiko i M Hl* 6*» 5 H £22*16* « 1/6 261* 1*10 Dok» 1/9 CI 6* 6*0 7i& £50: 3* » 1/9 £71* 5* 5 Kateha 1/9 CI 6t 6*8 TH. £30* 3* » 1/10 £74*13* 4 Sourcei Held Survey in July 1969. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY # 199 jjaproved transportation facilities is refloeted in narket pricea as food orop pricea in areas serred by good motor roads and rall are oftan higher than in areas of poor road development. 'fhis can be seen in Table 28 «hieb ahovs aarket pricea in the different caae study aarkets where the locational advantage of areas serred by good roado can be seen. Katcha and Doko mrksts «hich are serred with good all ooason roads (in addition Katcha is serred by rail and river tranaport) have the highest mrket pricea, vshile Biko and Paiko where transport facilities are poor ly developed have the losest pricea. Kokwa and Pandogari have a neasuro of advantage of bcdng located on the Jebba-Kaduna road but this advantage is United by lack of feeder roads in the Districts. Othar factora apart fron transportation facilities xaay however contribute to the prioe differentiale. For examplo, Hoksa, Pandogari, Diko and Paiko are nain contres of yaa and guinsa-carn production «hilft littlft pan is gomn in Katcha and Doko Districts vhere the econany is doasinatftd by rice production. It is to be noted however that even though Katcha and Doko Districts are the m i n c ent ree of rice production, the pries of rice is higher than in the other Districts. 13118 further shows the inportance of dsreloped transportation facilities shich has enhanced the dsrelopnsnt cf food crop mrketing in the two Districts. A corollary cf poor transportation facilities is dolays in produce evacuation arising fron roads becoaing impaosable to lorries during the rainy season. The untarred Trunk B roads naintained by the iünistry of Works are oftsn closed to traffic for 24 hours foUowing heavy rainfall and this usually leads to delays and higher transportation costs. For UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 200 4 example, Wholesale traders spend on the average three days to and fro Abuja for yam purchase betveen February and April, bub betveen Hay and July the average nnmbor of days riae» to five. This is correspondingly refleoted in the 25,* average riae in transpart coats. 1t is recognized that the seaaonality of food production and supply relative to deesand oontributae to seasonal price Variation, yet the problem of food crop evaouation in the rainy season contributes, in no amll neasure, to seasonal price Variation». It thorefore appeara that iaproved träneportation often leads to Imprcved marketIng and oxpansicn of rural production with oonsequent increase in incone to the farmer, Difficultieo of produce evaouation, partieularly where storage and processing facilitios are poorly developod es in the study area, is probably one of the most Important disinceatives y to increased production for the market. 1t oay also lead to nisaUooation of resource oince relative ease of evaouation ratber than relative value or efficioncy of production aay determine crope grown and farm Investment. With the gradual impovementa in träneportation facilitios in the study area, aß noticeable ln the Jima/Doko/Katcha farraing sone, development of the rural oconoray in terms of increased food crop production and higher priese to formers provide Incentives for the exponsion of agricultural production and marketing in the Kiddls Belt of Nigeria. Food crop marketing in Nigeria is charactorised by a large nuaber of transactions involving producera, several stages of middienen and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 201 consumers. This ia repreeented schemtically in Fig. 18 which shows the ehain of iatenasdiarios bctwoen fanaer-producer and consumer, ab food crops are produoed in aaall quantitiea scattered orer wide areas in the Middle Belt» a large number of persona are required to assemble theae aaall quantities for the wixolesaler and retailer in the cansuming ceatres. Quite orten, the food crops pass through many mors hands in the channel of dietributicn than they do in either the forest ar Sudan acnes before they are delivered at the m i n consuaing centras whero they are furthar broken into amall quantitiea as required by consumers. The local trade in the producing area iß doninated by amall-ecale middlßiaen particularly vornan. Capital requirencnt is low, except for a fev wholeaalora, and entry and exit into food crop trade is usually at a low level. Labour is often Bubstituted for Capital» particularly in tranaporting cosmodities over short distancea. Internal exchange of food crops with other parts of Nigeria is subjeot to a aulti-chain distribution channel and in thia regard, it haß been observod that "multi-chain Channels* in food crop maxk»ting, "tend to be connected with low levels of production, retailing activlties and consumers' denanda" (Onakomaiya, S, 1970i 84). The low consumera' denand and high narbeting (especially Transportation) coats have rosulted in low priem paid to the farmer when compared with what M s eounterpart in the forest and Sudan zones roceived for the same unit of food arops offered for aale. Thia low prioe for food crops was interpreted by the farmer as indicating low dezand for hie productiona. He was therefore denied the incentive to axpend hie level of agricultural production. In consequsnce, the Kiddle Belt farmer was UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig 18.CHAIN OF INTERMEDIARIES BETWEEN PRODUCERS AND CONSUMERS IN THE INTERNAL EXCHANGE ECONOM OF THE MIDDLE BELT. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 202 producing below capacity thus leading to a low lovol of rural economic activitiea and economic development. ln the past five to aix yeare, however, demand froa other parta of Nigeria for food crope produeed in the Middle Belt has been stepped up as a rosult of rlsing population» increasing Urbanisation and the development of secondary occupations in Nigeria. The Middle Belt farmer has respesided by increasing hia level of production while bette* marketing facilities are being developed. The lang Chain of foodstuff distribution is gradually being reduced and with the advent of informl farmers* cooperativea, better knowledge of the market and the aatry of coatract- traders and large seale wholesalers, the Middle Belt farmer as ahowa in T&ble 25 is obtaining eosaparatlvely higher returne for bis farm produce with oonsequent iaprovement is rural inoomos and development. However, the probleas of low level of production and high cost of marketing resulting fron sparse porulation and poorly developed transportation facilities are still major bottlenecks to the full realisation of the potentialitiee of the Middle Belt. The probier» of food crop marketing will be discusaed below, but in the mean time we täte a look at the claaaifioation of morkets and market location in the study orea. CIA33IFICATION OF MAJCT3 A nurnber of factors can be taten into aeeount when classifying martets1 in the study area. One poosible Classification identifies types I • The term märtet is he re defined as "an authorized public gathering of buyers and sellers of Commodities meeting at a place aore or lass strictly limited or defined at an appointed regulär intarvals". We however note that wayside lorry stope and collecting points are incipient märtet places. (Adapted from Polly Hill's (juotation 1963s 450). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY '-Vt; , 203 according to importance in their vdiolesoling fuaction. Shis was the acthod adopted by Prof. ülduner (1964 & 1965) when ho elasaifisd Chinese aarkets kiorarchically as 'minor*, 'Standard', 'Inttanaediate* and 'central'* Harket gr&datiött iß terms of proportion of produce whieh entere the in ternal eshhongc eeoncoy aa for instaace the rillas© , d ia tric t and urban aarkets can bo recoeniaed, yet th© s tr ic t ly MertrckicrJjbrder of aarkets is limited by the lack of M erarchical d&Yisiön of market functions as betwcen A olesale and r e ta i l märtet fuaetions while seasonal fluctuatian in aastet aetivitie® also rander such a Classification inappli- oable to the study area. In th is conneotion, i t has beea oboerved that yr Mthe inappropriatoness of mich a M erarchieal typology is oae of the characteristics of the aarkets of aany re&ioos of tost Afrioa" white M-the •central plaoe theory* developed by C hristaller and othora* is of limited application (Poly H ill, 1966t 298). In addition, i t has boen observed that * a aore coaclueiv© dononstratioo of the relational! jp between periodic aarkets (a ll but two of the aarkets in the study area aro . oriodic) and Central Plaoe Theory m st await som advances on the mothodological frontH (Smith, K.T.E. 1970: 35). In the case of Yoaruba market®, the Classification givm by Hodder (Hodder, B.W. 1965» 49 and 1969» 59) distinguiching bctvoca 'periodic market» * and 'd aily märtet» 1 was found to be of l i t t ! » tise höre as a l l the markets are periodic xaarteta with the exoeption of the urban markets cf Mda and Kiona. Agboola’ e (1962t 125-126) Classification based on a oombination of factors auch as Settlement rank and origin, mode of Operation and the rote played by the märtet in internal or local ecchange, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 204 distiaguishing rural farm, rillage, medium-sisso and preoier urban market» is aore relevant to the study area. In olassifying th® markete ve there- fore take into oonsideration a combination of factora such a» th© degree of participation in the internal «atchange economy (ln terms of Whole­ sale crop purchase» for reeale in other parts of Nigeria), the sis» of th© market and location in urban or rural areas. Four types of market» are thus diatlnguinhed and are located on Fig. 19* The four type» arc: (i) Roadaide narkets; (ii) Village marketsj (iii) Central raarketa; and (iw) Urban market». .ftWbrifla foarkstai These are usually situated on roadaide or on road junctions on th© way to the aain market» or on the min horth-South and Hokwa-Bida-Abuja-Ilinna road» whsre passers-by, fera-gate middlemen or itinerant tradars could stop to buy food crops. Roadaide market» serve as ’relay Station»' uaed as axchang* market betveen th© urban ecntres and the rural distriota. Such roadaide markets are oftcn not on Settle­ ment sites and are found at «Aiya-Suma near Mda and Bosso near Minna. They are particularly nunoroue during the min yam eacporting season (if'ebruary-July) in the Abu ja and Minna yam producing aroos. Roadaide market» are not permanent feature» and are apt to be seasonal in Operation e with many of them coming into being during the harrest season» and folding up during the growing season. Such crops as yam, guinea com, oowpeas, sugar-oane and regetable» are usually offered for aal© at roadaide market». Villag» Market»i These are rery numerous (thou^x usually far apart) in the »parsely populated Districts of the study area. The settlaments eerved by the villaga markets are usually iaolated villages and hone- UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 205 steads and since such settlenento are nore often than not situated away fron the min roada and paths, village markets are usually situated along lines of comamications or in the central village such as the Village or District Headquarter® where food crope are easily aarketed. In many oases such as at Tebu in Knall District there aotor roada are poor and i human porterage is the main neans of tranoportation, priem are sxtreoely low as farmers iocperience difficulties at marketing their farm producta. The village narkets are the primary outleto for the farmer’s farm producta, and are frequented by men and woaon. alike. The Internal exchange market is mainly in the handa of women, and from thera fars-gate middlemen, oommissionod agents and mlddleman who are resident in the towns or central market aroas purchase producta for re-sale or delivery to priaary wholesalers in the contral markets. Farmers also buy in return from itinerant tradera Importod household goods and Provision such as koroaone, torch-batteries, cloths, aalt etc. There is now a growlng tendency for farmer» who bring their produce to the village market to combine their produce together and invite wholesalers or tradera from the District headquarters or central market arme to purchase produce from them in bulk. ihren though proces are atill lower than those obtaiaabls at the Central Markets, the farmar is saved the trouble of selling in small lots, as well as the need to pay the fam-gate mlddleman and commisaioned agents* margins. With iapraved transportation and increasing demand for food erops from other parts of Nigeria, many village markets such as Kwakuti (an the Hinna-Abu^a road) and Qwagwa (on the Abuja-Keffi road) are now playing the role of central markets and actine as colleoting and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Hi 206 marke tlng contres for food crops eocported to the Sudan and Formt acnes of Nigeria. Central Marke tat These are partieularly nuaerous in th© ‘Cüs-Kaduaa* Districts of high population doasities; within a radiua of thirty alles of Bida, there are eight such markets (Kutigi, Leon, 3oko, Jiaa, Badeggi, Carba» Agaie, Lapai), while in contrast to this, central narlccts are few and far apart in the aparaely populated Districts. The Central rnrkets are the aain eollecting and exporting centres for food crops produced in the study area. Crops purohased in the roadslds and village narkots as well aa thoae produced nearby are taksn to the m i n markets for purchase by \dioloealere and exported to the forest and Sudan eones of Nigeria. Threo of the central aarfcets could be classified on account of the magnitude of their trade with othor parts of Nigeria as regional or export-inport market. These are Katcha, Badeggi and Qwagwalada. Katcha ia situated cm River Niger and is servad by all-eeason roado, railway and rlver transport. It ia the aain entropot in the study area and her© tradors from aaay parts of Nigeria convorge to trade for two or three daye in the veek (Thursday to Saturday - though Friday is the aain narbst day). Imported goods such as ' e*enent, corrugatsd iron sheets, bicyclcs, otc. and local producta such as eil pala and kola nuts are brought fron the forest scmes by boats and lorries for distribution in the study arm or re-expcrt by road and rail to othor parts of Northern Nigeria, Food crops partieularly ries» onion, vegetablos and fish are transported to the South whlle rice, guinea-cora and aango are railed to the North. For exasple, an Friday 21 st March 1969, 17 seven-ton lorries and 19 boats with UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 207 capacities ranging froa 50 to 500 tons wer« loaded with farm produc© for export at Katoha while correaponding figures for fee 28fe of Haroh wer« 20 lorries and 15 boats. Badeggi also apeciallzoa in fee e x p o rt of rice, beans, p op p er and shoanuts to the forest Zone and fe e e x p o rt of guinea- corn, millet and raango to fee Sudan zone by rail. OwagwaJLada is fee main y&m marketing centra in fee Abu ja yam producing area, and botw oen Januar y and July «ach year, the market takes on fe e appearance of a daily market as a t leaat 5 sew e n-to n lorry loads of yaa originate fron feere everyäay. It ia fee degree of participation in fee internal exchange economy and the eine of the narket ln tarne of attendance and producte offered for resale in other parta of Nigeria that differantiatee the central aarkets fron fee village mrkets, fable 29 showe fee dlfferonce in pattema of marketing at Gwagwalada (Central market) and Dafa (village market). Both are situated in fee yam producing Dis tricts of Kwali in Abuja üairate and are located 11 milea apart on fee Abuja-Koton-karfi r ad. Gwagwalada village area bas a population denaity of about 55 persona per square alle while correspondint' figures for Dafa village area ia about 20. Dafa is ans of fee four aarkets supplying Gwagwalada with farm produce and ia attended mainly by fee local population and itinorant traders resident in Abuja ikdrate. Gwagwalada on the other hand is tho mein market oentre for Kwali District, and traders from within and outside Abuja Emirate - some coming from as far away as Jos, Lokoja and Ibadan attend the market to buy yam for fee Southern mrkets and grains for the Northern marketa. Ürban Marketat These are fee markets at Abuja, Bida and Minna. The UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 208 Abuja market is a periodic 7-day market and it ie held every Sunday though a aaall daily market is held near the xiair's palace, The Abuja market serves as the mein maltet for imported goode fear Abuja Emirate as well as the main marketing centre for yams and graina produoed in the iimirate. Kany traders fron Hestern and Northern Nigerian towno are resident ln the townj ln 1969 there were 28 yaa traders and brotera frorn Western Hlgerian towns and 21 yrua and grein traders and brotera from Northern Hlgerian towns. ’ There are four daily market» in Bida - Usman 2aki, Hasaga, Uaoru Majigi and Bauda. The main märtet (Bahan Kaemta) is Uamaa 2akL with a night market cloee by. Bida is the main centre of trade in food crops in the study orea, and fron her© nany traders trarel to all tho Bistricts in Niger Province to collect foodstuffs mainly for eseport to the urban areas cf Southern Nigeria* Between September 1969 and June 1970, the Ministry of Agriculture nt Bida estimated that the followiag quantities of food orops were bought and taten fTom Bida to Western Nigeria* 10,500 tons of ricej 2#760 tona of beaxxsj 225 tone of oaion? 16 tons of melon and 12 tons of red pepper» whila 600 tons of riee, 1„500 tons of guinea- com and 1,200 tons of aillet wäre taken to urban arcao of the Sudan Zone. The I&nna urban märtet’which is held daily Is the main narketing centre for graina and yaras gs-own in the Gwari areas. This was faraerly a periodic market held on ’iednesdays and Fridays but it becaae a daily market since the stalle were built in 1956. v/ednesday and Friday are, however, uaually the peak market days «dien produce is brought from the Gwari Districts aainly by human porterage. From Minna, the food cropa UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 209 IABLB 29» r/USmilS Qj> gtADU Al BitthltLüh a n Mi-A hvXiSä öMQgwalada Data Commodities/Particulars aötiraated Astiaated Auantity and „uantity and Bumber Number tarn 90 tons 20 tons Tarn flour 3 * i ton Guinea-com 5 * 1 • Millot 4 '» 1 * Selling points fer proceaaed food 15 3 Tarn and grain traders resident in Abuja iänirate 25 9 Tarn and grain traders resident outside Abuja IMrate1 17 2 Traders in Imported material 27 9 Total attendance 3,000 650 Lorriee in the market 9 2 1. Wholesale traders mainly from Bida, Katcha, Badoggi, Agale, Iapai, Minna, Jos, Loicô a and Western Nigeria. aouroet Average of rou$i censuaes carried out an 5th aud 9th April, 1969 at Data and on 6th and lOth April, 1969 at Gvagwal&da. are tranaported by rail mainly to the urban areas of the Sudan z m e , while aost of the yans knoen as *Guari yam* in Kaduna origxnate fron Minna Market. Betveen January and July 1969» tue following produoe wäre railed to the North from Minna* 4#2üu tons of ya«S) 1,200 tone of cowpeaaj 350 tona of guinea cornj 600 tons of milleti 200 tons of rico and 60 tons of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2 1 0 yaa flour. In addition, 950 tona of rloe, 150 tons of guinea oorn and siiXlet and 60 tons of ym ß wäre railed to Mastem Higeria.1 Another type of markot which may be notod in the study area is night marketa which servc minly local needs. There are three night narkota in the study area and they are looated in the Hupe tovns of fiida, Agaie and Jim. The Bida night market is a daily mrtet and haa been described by Iladel (1942* 42-3) as *the centro of Bida’s puleating lifo* in that activities in the market are a eombination of coamercial and socsial life. The night marke ts at Agaie and Jim are continuationa of the 7-day and 4-day market weeks respectively and their functiona are more or lass the aame as that of the Bida night market. m r n r n r n m , The locah^bf narketa (Fi®. 19) may be eeen to rofleet three faetorst (i) population density and patterns of Settlement} (ii) Settle­ ment rank} and (iii) linea of coisauaioations. Kartete are more numerous and eomparatively nore involvod in the internal exohange ooonony in the relatively densely populatcd Mstricto of the study area. The Central narketa are found mainly in the main centros of population and this is particularly demonstrated in the 'Tram-kaduna’ and 'Cia-Xaduna' Districts of Bupeland, f’or example, the three *Trana-Kaduna* Districts with a popula­ tion density of 23 peroons per square alle had 3 markets while the fite ’Cis-Kaduna* Districts with 65 persona per square nilo had, in addition to the marketa in Bida, 14 markets, It should be notod hov/ever that the nuaber of marke te doos not necessarily roflect the pattem or lervel of trade going on in the market as can be seen in Table 29 vhore the voluae 1. Information obtained from the Coamercial Officer, Higeria» inilmay Corporation, Kinna. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY F i g 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 211 of trade and conmodities offered foz* aale at Gwagvalada ©an be ‘ I . - conp&red «Ith that at Bafa* In hls study of Yoruba periodic markets, Hodder found a siailar relationship between market diatribution and population denaity in that "the diatribution of period mrkets .... refleot in gcmoral the broad pattem of population diatribution "aß market diatribution "is moat continuous in t h e ....rolatlvely densely populated country" (Hodder, B,W. 1969» 61)* In addition, hi» obaorvation that Variation» in the denaity of periodic marketa "seem to be aosociated mast cloeely «ith areal differentiation in the pattem» of sott lernen t" is also relevant in our part of the Kiddle Belt as the hinter denaity of marketa in the 'CJLe-Kaduaa' Districta may be seen to refleot the hi#i proportion of villages as diatinot fron the type of hamlet Settlements in the aporsely populated Gwari Districts discuaaed in Chapter throe. Apart frora roadaide rnrkets nearly all the marketa are located in administrative headquartors of Districts or Village Areas* Unlike in the Yoruba areaa vhore Hodder not.d that periodic aarkets aho« little correa- pondenoe «ith "the diatribution, eise or hierarchy of mural or urban aettlementa" (Hodder, B.W* 1969*62), markete in this part of the Middle Belt, are eaaily identified «ith Settlement rank* Uvea tiioû i there are a fev markats whioh are not on Settlement altes, such as the einer road­ aide marketa, the main marketa are loeated in administrative hoadquartera whioh are usually centres of population concentration. The asaooiation between settlenont ranka and marketa could be traoed to the hiatory of settlementa and population diatribution in the area, in that moat of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ' 212 large settlemanta grew as a reault of protection the Chiefs offered fron eiere raida of the late nineteenth Century, whilo the present high Population densities and intensive land use in the ’Cis-Kaduna* Districta owe thoir origin to the protection offered by the Pulani Sitetrs in the area. zrtensive areas to the west, south-east and north-east of the study area without major settlements and administrative cantres have fev marketa. Skinner's (1962s 255) obeorvation that "the pouer of the chiefa makes markets possible" is vory relevant here, for it ia the chiefa who in the first plaoe nahe expanding settlements poasible by affering protection, and it is they who give royal prerogatives for the establiah- zaent of markets. Staith also notea the close asaociation between the t , heodquarters of the village Chief and the developiaont of a regulär market among the Hausa of Northern Nigeria (üxaith, M.G, 1962t 505-306). Nadel also notes that royal delegates in Hupe Bistricts have to approva the \ establishaent of markets and arrange for their coxxsocration by Kallame (Nadel, S.F. 1942s 523). *Ven though Folly Hill obsorvod that Skinner*s idea may not be of general applicaticn (Polly Hill, 1966s 299), it appears that the re is a close conaectien betveen Chiefs and markets in the study area. As markets are usually aources of revenue, through the payment of teils, and placss where royal Orders and important deeisions are amounoed» Chiefs have sought to locate markets in their headquartors so that the main markets are often assoctated with the District headquarters. The development of roads and railw&ys has hovevor nodified the looation of markets as some of these, especially the roadaide markets, are now found along the main lines of comaunicatian. Whyar-Suma market UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 213 naar Bi da is a collecting point by fara-gat© tradere for Bi da market while 'Swakuti market on the Abu^a-Hinna road baa also developed at a point wh®re roads intersect and a eett lernent i® new growing up at the site. This development Highlights the recent trends in rjopulatlan mowements whereby many settleaeats are being foundod along the oain roads, while markets develop to oerve m outleta for food crops produced in the new Settlements. Two market woeks are recoenisable in the area and thene are the 4-day and 7-day market weeks shown o n Hg. 20« 1t bau been obeerved that periodicity is advantageous to those w h o so economic activitiea are diffuse (Polly Hill, 1966*301). This Observation is of oapecial relevanoe to the study area in that the time dimension given by the market periodi- oity allowo producers to attend to the work on to© farm and to the prooessing of food crops before aarteüng. The 7-day mrketo are regarded as the more important osaos and in tos Hupe Moslem areas, the 7-day mrkets are usually held on Fridays whereby marke ting can be combined with worship at the Central Village ©r District mosques. The 7-day market is common in tbe Sudan sone among the Hausa and it is gaining in importance as a result of Islanic influence, 4-day markets are also videspread in the study area, providing outlets for food crops produced in nearby villagea and oollecting cantres for local traders who resell to middlemen wholesalers. Nadel*s Statement that aarkets are bald ''©vory fifth day" must have been. based on the Hupe 4-day cyole usually reforred to by th© Hup© as live days (Hadol, S.F. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 214 1942*321)♦ As noted earlior, market» are held daily in two urban centrea at Bi da and Sünna, though daily morning market» are held in five other market» at Badeggi» Katcha» Mokwa, Agaie and Abutfa. Düring the harrest perioda, some roadside market» are also held daily and these provide outlets for producta produoed nearby. Harket ring» are not a common feature of marketing in this part of he Middle Belt as they are in Toruba areas or the lliddle Belt area south f the Niger (Rodder, B.W. 1961 and Agboola, S.A, 1962* 128). This may e dt» to the low Settlement density and greater iaportance of the 7-day riday market» as well a» the tondency for each administrative unit to atabliah its own market. Apart froa the faet that markets are usually or apart in the aparsely populated areas, market» are usually established nd held on the saxae day in relative ly donsely populated adjacent Dis t riete. Or «sample, within 9 miles of Lapai, there is another market, Kami in gaie Btairate which is held on the »ans weck day (Tuesday) as the Lapai arket. Within Abuja Boirate also, Gwagwa market is hold on the same eek day (Saturday) as Wüse whioh is about 5 miles apart. Inter-village ependence and esohange noted in the case of Afikpo market» (Ottenberg, • & P. 1961) is lese developed in this area as agricultural production s primarily for other parts cf Nigeria. There is however a number of market rings, ans of which is found in the north-west part of the study area where the 4-day nerkets of Kakuri, Tegina, Pandogari and Kaikujeri are held periodlcally in that Order. The 7-day marbets around Abuja are also held on the follcwing days* Hadala on Thursdayj Dike and Gwagwa on Saturdays and Abu^a an Sundays, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 215 These do not hcwever conform to Hodder’s definitiaa of a rnrket ring as a System "cooposod of a complete and integrated sequence of markets taking place over 4~day or multiple of 4-day periods" (Hodder, B.W# 1961* 109)* i&rlier in this chapter we referrod to tue nulti-chain distribution chaanel botween the faraor-produc er and the ultiaate consumer and this was depicted in Hg* 13. The iatermediaries between the farmesvproducer and the consumer are regarded as middlemen, and thoy perform a nuaber of ecanonic functions in organiaing the collection of food crops fron the farmer and delivery to the consumer. They are of ton imrolvod in a series of activitiee such as the collection, assemblage, bulldng, trans- portation and distribution of food crops to eonsimero. Ihrery aiddleman in the Chain of food crop distribution adds a little margin to the starke ting oost and through the s erlös of middlemen a conaiderable srnount is added to tho marketing cost with oonsequsnt roduction in the farmers* income as «eil as increase in consumer price. The prLmary sale of food crops is undertaken by the farmer’s vif« v;ho in some cases purchases the crops from her husband. 3he in tum sells to the fara-gate aiddleman or the trader in the mrket. At this stage, the diiiaH1 • comission agents or broksrs enter the chain and different groupa of airiAii are aetive in bringiag buyers and sellere together up to the stage eben the food crops are purchased by the urban wholesaler. As a pcwerful bargainer he also acts as agent for contraet 1 • TMllali is a Hausa word of Axabic origin signifying a farmlly recognised intermedi&ry betv/oen buyer and seller who conducts the aotual procoss of sale in the market in retum for a Commission - UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ■%: . 216 traders and institutional conaumers and obtains oomiaaion tv m both the faraer-produoer and trader. Eis hold on tho market is quite strong so that in Sone cases» ao at Abttfa, ha requlrea & liccnco issuad by the Local Authority. Many middlsnen are involvod in the tronsactions and as many as tan aiddlemen rny handle the f ood cropa at one 3tage ar the other from the time it leaves the f ärmere♦ farm tili it is purchased by primary wholesalers or contract traders who in tum take the cropa to the main eonsuming centree of the forest and Sudan zones. A recent derolopmont in the marketing of food cropa is the growth in the nuaber of Immigrant traders who organise the purchase and tranaport of food crope to the Forest and Sudan sones of the country. Of the 57 rcgistered yaa and graia traders in Abutfa üfairato in 1969» thore «rare 28 fron bestem Nigeria» 21 fron iiorthern Nigeria and 6 indigenes of Abuja tänirate. The Immigrant traders are aetively involved in promoting trade between our part of the Hiddle Belt and the reat of the oountry, They work aa itlnerant traders» colleoting produce from the villages and markets and than seil to traders who eoae from other porto of the oountry or erränge to tranaport the produce directly to the consuralng contres. In many oases* Immigrant traders are also responaible for organising transport for the evacuation of farm produce» for trade in manufaotured materials such as clothing, housohold goods and building naterials whieh are brought fron overseas and the forest and 3udan sonos of the oountry, indigsnous traders are howewer gradually takLag part in the trading actiwities and this is particularly the oase in the Jima/Doko/Katcha fanaing eone where many Hupe men and women are active in trade* UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY m , 217 In perforaing the role of the middleman, tho trader Inva lably adds to the coat of the produce to the consumer at every stoge of the ohain of diatributiom. It can be eoen fro® Table 27 that rdddlenen’s oargia account for an average of 15'̂ of the coat of Guinea com to tho consumer» about 20/- of the coat of yams and ovar 25/ of the coat of rice to the eonsumsr. In most of the food crops produced faraörs* incono ls leas than 50/ of its coat to the consumer vhile tranaport coat and niddlemen’o nargin account for over 50/ of its ooet to the consumer. Apart from the large number of intermediariea in food erop marketing, some of the actions of the middlenen often Xead to artificial short ages and price increases to the consumer. Before the Nigerian Civil War» it was the usual practice of Ibo traders to buy hundrods of tons of yaas fron Abuja and Minna areas and rice at very low prices fron Bida area during the harvest seaaon and transport thea throu^h Katdh on river Niger to Onitaha, while othera v;oro transparted to Kano whero they were stored* Onyemelukwe (1970» 170) noted that "the most highly valued variety" o f rice at Onitaha market was "the tiny, spindle-ahaped rice (BO 79) fron Niger Province known in Onitaha market as ’Wüli-wuli Minna* "• He also noted that a lot of yam supplies at Onitsha market cone fron the Middle Belt. The yam and rice thus brought from the study area are hoarded at Onitsha market tili prices have risen and are thereafter exported to Lagos» Zbadan and other eonsuming centros of the forest sone so that most of the rice often assumed to originate from Onitsha area actually This aotion of middlemen, to say the least, ie disadvantageous to UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY v 218 both the farmer-producor and Consumers, In the first place, fanaers receive very low pricos, decondly, the distance ovcr which the food crops aro tranaported througfa a Circuitous route to the consuaing contres of Western Nigeria and Lagos are unnecessarily incroasod by over 200 milea thereby increasing the trancport eosts vhich are invariably paasod on to both the f armer and the consumr. In the third place, artificial scarci- ties are introduoed leadlng to hi^i prices to the eonsuaer. Th» role of the adddlemen in orgsnislng food erop sarketlng and openlng up aarkets for Middle Belt produce as well as the need for a margin to pay for their Services are recognised. It is also recognised that the large number of aiddlemen involved may nak» food erop aarlaeting fair ly competitive, but it appears that a substantial part of faraers* potential incone and consumer price increases are absorbed by the high cost of oarketing and distribution, so that the fanaer-proaucor dooa not derive auch benefit fraa price increases, The disadvantageoue poaitiou of the ferner with regard to mld&lemenls aotivities in the dornest!© marketing of pala oil in higeria bas boen ahown by üsaang (! 963) and it is feit that a deliberate policy to isprove Marketing arrangements by reducing the Chain of middlemen in food arop mrketing in our pari of the Fdddle Belt is essential» if the rural economic development of iäae area is to be accolarated. m iF'm jm M mm We stated earlier in this chapter that apart from the ehortage of human resources to devslop the potentialities of the Middle Belt, the poor faelllties for the transportation and narketing of food crops UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ;3a , 219 probably eonstitute tho most fornidable prob lern of rural economic development in the area. Zn epite of tho existence of local raarketa and surplus food crop production, the Marketing: of food crope face a number of pxoblema which eonstitute impediaents to an order ly and timely flow of comoditiea to the urban and denaely populated areas of. the forest and Sudan aones. m m though aom of the probloos are boing solved as a raault of improved transportation, rising demand and prices for food crope, other problens nover the leas reaain and contirmo to affect the rural economy of the study area« Apart from the problens of transporta­ blen and distribution of food crops, a number of probierte can be Identified. A laajor problem facing food crop marketing in tho study area ia lack of ateady deoand and a reasonably osoured market for the farmer's product. Mhile food crop production faoee this problon in Nigeria as a whole, the Middle Belt auffers particularly from the locational disadVantage of being distant from the mein oonsuning centres. iieport crop Barkating is well organised and haa guaranteed markets through Marketing Board Agents, bat the marketing of food crope is pocrly organised and is typifled by small-ecale units wlxich lack the neeessary Capital, technical Jmowledge and managerial ecxperience to create larger and nore efficient units of Operation« The low levels of incone, Urbanisation and irtduotrialisation as well aus lack of areal product specialisation in Higerian agriculture do not provide conditiona essential to smooth flow of food crops from the sparsely populated Middle Belt to the more populous areas in Nigeria« In many cases, the f armer could not seil all his food crops while thoaa sold are usually« UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 220 at low prices as a result of lack of steady and sustained donand for the farm produce as well as a result of high transportation costs to the eonsuiaing centros of the forest and Sudan zones. The root crops produc ed ln the study area such as yo m , caasava and sweet potato could be produced in the forest zone while tho grain crops such as rice, guinea-eorn and nillet are produc ed in the Sudan zone. ln years when caah crop prices are low, food production in the forest and Sudan zones are stepped up with oonsequsnt fall in dsesand for food crops produced in the study area. Foliowing the fall in cocoa prices paid to farmers in Beatern Nigeria in 1965 and 1966, the production of food crops • was increased in Western Nigeria with the result that denand for Abuja yaas (*4u«fc m i n markst 1s in './estern Nigeria) feil and average pries of yaa at Abuja feil fron £11,15/- per ton in June 1964 to £8,11/- per ton in June 1967 (27f fall in price), At Tabu in Kwali Mstriet many fanaers could not seil thelr yana at all and these were left to rot away. An exanple of the effect of denand oa food crop production may be seen in riee production. Demnd for rice rose during the second World War and faraers in Bida Division responded by ezpanding production so that by 1942, 2,000 tons were purchased for the a m y In Bida a rm (Lines, G.W. 1945), By about 1945 however, the demnd for rice feil and many fanaers had to out back on rice production.1 Thia Situation continued until the late 1950s wtoen rising population, Urbanisation and urban incoae in Nigeria lad to increased denand for rioe and fanaers' correapom- dingly eaepanded its production, The greater development of raarketing facilitieo and sustained demnd fron Western Nigeria for vegetablea - 1 • Oral ©videnoe fron fanaers during field eurwey» UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 221 anions, red pepper, tomato and okro, produced in the Jiaa/ öoko-Katcha farming sone is also reflected in the large quantitios of such crops produced and exportod to bestem Nigeria. Uncertainty as to the price and possibility of aale of food crops has beon a major conatraint to oxpansion of prodnetion of food crops among färmere in the study area. Not only wäre färmere «nable to es timst s what pricea their crops would fetch in the market, they were also not eure of securing markets for such crops. Thia Situation is howewer changing gradually following rising population and increased Urbanisation in Nigeria which has led to increased and sustained denaad for food crops. The need for effielest storage and food crops Processing, particularly in an area where poor transportation increases the riska of food crop aarketing, cannot be ovor-emphasized. In this regard, it has beea elaiaed that wer 10f in value terms, of available food stipply is lost each year in Nigeria as a result of poor storage and proeesaing (Nigeria$ 1970). In addition, if the farmer is to benefit from the seasonal pries fluctuationa, a mors efficient System of crop storage and prooessing is essential. The existing Systems of procesoing and otoring grain and root crops in the study area lead to waetos through insect attacks and rotting as well as to low quality of food crops offered for aale. ln the study area, yam is stored in mounds cowored wlth laaves to proteet then fron the direct rays of the sun. This aethod is not as efficient as the storing of yaa on stakes in the forest Zone described by Morgan (1959). Bw«a thou^x the leavea proteet the yaa fron the direct UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF IBAD roA rozssN LIBRARY 223 posaibility of storine both paddy and processed rice for & long time wltbout fear of insect attack or deterioration in quality, The proeessing of grains, porticularly threshing is still a very laboroua undertaking for tho famer and bis houaeliold. Guinea oorn and rice are often besten on the uncemonted floor while aillet is besten by nortar. These mothods of proeessing are as time consuaing as they are vasteful while sand gets mixed up vith the grains on the floor thereby leadlng to lower quality grains. cXisting methoda of proceasing yaas into flour do not produce mrkotable flour all Over the country. ln the case of rice, many farmers ospecially in the Hoksra/Pandogari and D i W Paiko farming sonos still use the mortar to remove the huaka as rice mills are few and far batween. In the Jima/Ookc/Katcha farming zone, rice mills are\ increasing though not yet suffioiently to oope with the increasing production of rice, The practice by farmers of mixing rioe r ' j grains of different varieties e.g, mixing up of Mas 2401 and BO 79 and the erude parbolling msthods often lead to brokea grains and inoomplete renov&l of husks when processed in the mills, These have the effect of lowering the quality of the finished produot and consequmt low prices to farmers. In ohapter 6 ve referred to the higher rate of taxation to which cash orop farmers are subjected as well as speoial levies which tradere in sash crops are made to pay by the local Authorities. we observed then that this is one of the reasona why cash orop production and Marketing have not beea well developed in the study area. The posaibility of UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 224 the study area and the Middle Belt aa a whole, specialising in the growlng of food crops for cash assumes the existence of an unrestrioted market. Dnfortunately, the Local Authorities in the study area, in aoeordance with a loag traditio» of husbanding Stocks of food crops, fron time to time mbo regulations restricting and even bannlng the export cf food crops to other parts of Nigeria. Such regulations are often made and enforceable botween Harch and July each ycar when the pricoa of food crops are at their highost in other parts of Nigeria. Star «sample, as a result of the riss in the priese of food crops beteten December 1963 and Harch 1969 eben the prices of guinea corn and rice rose fron 4d per mudu to 7d per nudu and from lOd per srndu to 1/3 per mudu respectively at Bida, the Edda Local Authority made an Order on 11th April, 1969 baming the export of food crops from lts area of Juris­ diction to other parts of the country. The Order affocted not only food crops produced in its area of Jurisdiction bat also food crops from nelghbouring Local Authority areas as both the orcrland and rirer routes to Western Nigeria pass through Bida Local Authority's area of Jurisdiction, withia a fortnight, the other Local Authorities in the study area passed similar Orders and as the protests lodged by loeal traders were to no avail, they had to resort to the emuggling of food crops out of the area. The objoctives of such parochial Orders are to ensure that food supplies are adequate and pricas kept low within the produeing area. The aum total effeots are however to reduce faraor-producers * income, lisdt M s production expanalon and lead to shortagoo in other parts of Nigeria. In thls connection, Baldwin (1997 t 196) has observed that UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 225 thie parochial attitudo of the Local Authorities is iaco patible with economic development aa the 1 Imitation of markets lindt production. It aay be askod uhether the problems disoueaed in carmeotion with the ru-rketing of food crops are unique to the study area or the Middle Belt within Nigeria. No attempfc haa been made in this study to Show that the probleas diacussed are poculiar to the study area alono and not of general application to othesr parta of Nigeria. Huch has been written ab out the problaes of food crop marketing in Nigeria and the r ec ent steep rise in food prlces has added a new dimenaion to the diacusaion of the Problems. The focus of this study has howevsr been on the study area in particular and the Middle Belt in general. The probleas of food crop marketing is feit to be of special importance in the study area for a nuxaber of reasona. ln the first place» the economy of the study area is prodominantly based an the production of food cropa for the internal esohange economy vrithin Nigeria. Any problens oonfronting food crop narketing are bound f ♦ to have more far-reaehing effeots on its economy than on the economy of other areas which are based on both erport and food crops with growing Urbanisation and secondary oconondo activities. Socondly» the study area has the local disadvantago of being far fron the na in consuaing centres of its producta. The efficienoy and promptness at which the food crops arrive at the consuming centres are UNIVERSITY OF IBADA LIBRARY 226 of auch casacern to the farcer ln the study area than to the tarmr whose food crops, as thoee withln the Kano Closo-Settled zone er withln " , f ■ >• Ibadan area, are seid withln. a few alles of hia farm« Thirdly, the potentlalitles of the study area in specialiaing ln food crop productioa for the riaing population and urbaaised areas of Nigeria, ars not yet fully developed and it iß fblt that a full develop­ ment awaits the effective solution of both the problens of ohortage of human resourceg and marketing of food crops produced in tho area. A aeaningful study of the problema oonfronting the nein sourco of incoae of the population of the study area is of unique importanoe if the process of rural ecanasic development in the study aroa 1s to be fully understood. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 227 «waauagg n a m m g M ia iw m s jim s m As rural economic development 1s & oontinuing procesc embodying changes in oocio-econoolc organisationa and factor comblnationa in production, as veil &s tho re-oriontation of rural production froa aubaistence to cornneroialiaod agrieulture, it is eaoential that m identify tkoso changes whlch makß for fuller and ho re rational uae of the agricultural reaources, The changes are säen as improving the efficioney of agrieulture and raising the level of incorae of tho agrioul» tural popnlation« Wo hnve «lready diocussed the ehnngos taking place in the socio-eoonomie Organisation of the agricultural population, and have noted that as agricultural production for tho market 1s on the increaae in the study area, the aandu farming unit is invariably subjected to tensions loading to ita break-up and replaceraent by tho ivali farming unit« With regard to agricultural production there are limitationa in measurlng tho degree of changes that havo taken place throu^i time in viev of the abeenco of previous studies in the area giving basic Information on land use, level of production, orop yields, marke ting faraer'a ineomo etc«1 In addition, food orop production figures (vhich form tho bulk of 1« Information given on agriculturo by the Federal Office of Statistioa, the Sorthern Nigeria Statistical learbooka and the Niger Frovincial Agricultural Stock-taking are generaliaed Information given on Frovincial basis thoreby limiting the basis of local cosperison. It is böserer hoped that the Crop Demonstration Analysis and survey of food orop production ourrently being undertaksa by Divislonal Officers of the Hiniatry of Natural Resources will produce valuable Information in the future. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 228 agricultural production in the study area) are not recordsd every year as is tha eass with export crop production figures given by the Marketing Board, In spite of the linitations impoaed by lack of proviouo studies and production atatistics raany fundamental ohangee have boen observed in the field on coamercialisation of agriculture, laad uae and teehniquea of crop production, types of crops grown and animl huabandry, lasmalM.Sammiti&a&üsaL&tMstooism. A noteworthy trond in agriculture in the area is its increasing conuBsrcialiaation, with so re and raore of the producta oriented to a market economy. Three min faetors have contributed to this increasing coneier» cialisation of agriculture and these ares (i) sustalned increase in demand for food crops resultlng from the riaing populution and Urbanisation in Nigeriaj (ii) increasin; monctisation of the Niger!an economy and greater cash needs of the ferner which are no longer limited to tax and brides* price payment«} and (iii) the increasin# Integration of the Higerian economy which has led to a greater development of the internal exohange economy in Nigeria, Perhaps the oost important thlng that has bappened to the Kiddle Belt economy is the sustained inereased demand from other parts of Nigeria for food crops produced in the Middle Belt, The rloe in demand beoame noticeable in the early 1960*8 following rlsing popalation, industrialisa- tion and Urbanisation in Nigeria. A fürther impetue m a added to this demand by the Nigeria» Crlsis and Civil % r which led to large-scale movement of populations to urban Centres in the rieuly-created States and to the various war fronta. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ■’> i 229 V« noted in the previous chapter that the increasod denand for food crops frest other parts of Nigeria led to price rises of food cropa in the study area and thia encouraged the f armer to increase his level of produc- tian. Thia increase in the level of prodnction is box»» out by Table 30 which shows the increase in average farm aereage cultivated per farming unit between 1963/64 and 1968/69 cropping aeascms. The peroentage increases in average aoreage cultivated within the five years Vary between 18.3§o at Eatcha and 34*7^ at Hokwa. The increase in prodnction was not only in muuai ggutt« « amiaa az mm m 19C/64 am . 1966/69 ( n A O ts») ffendA0&ri Mko B«i4kn 1963/64 7.2 1 . 6 6.5 8.5 6.5 6.0 1968/69 9 . 7 9 . 8 8.5 11.0 7.9 7.1 Peroentage increase 34.7 2 9 . 0 30.7 29.4 21.5 18.3 Sourcej Held survey questicmnaire analysis. aereage cultivated but also in the lntensity of land use as discussed in the nsxt ßection. The increase in aereage cultivated is particularly marked in the Mokwa/PSndogari and Äko/Paiko farming 20m.es vhere upland cultivation forma a greater peroentage of the farms and where marketing faoiüties for food crops wer© gradually inprovimg. Ihraers in the Jiaa/Doko/Katcha farafcmg zcme based thair expansiom of producti on cm incroased f»dAma and irrigatio» cultivation as well as cm the use of fertillaers leading to increased in- temsity of laad use. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY t 230 As the opportun! ties for selling food erops increased, the faroer was also developing new nonetary needs as a rosult of the Jncreaaing monetization of the Bigerian economy. Jfe noted earlior that such activi- ties as house-building and cava work on the f m m whicfa uoed to bo oosmunal werk are nov paid for in cash in form of wage» for housobuilders and farm labourers. Bride-price io also increasiagly beiag paid in cash in plaoe of farm-labour and farm peroduee. The farmer *s deaand for imported goods such as bicycles, radio» iron-roofing siioets» autoeydes, com and rioe ctills, and the development of new needs such as the neod for the payment of childrea’s school fees and the perfoxmance of holy pilgriaage to Mecca by aosleme further increased cash requirements. In oonsequonoe, the farmer has to increase the level of bis orop produotion for the market as hie oash requirements are no langer limited to the payment of tax and bride- piri.ee wkich, observed Mitchell, uoed to be the min cause of the central African farmers* desire to grow cash crops or to täte up wage labour (Mitchell, J.C., 1961* 200). Table 31 shows the ostimated percentage of the farmers* total food orop production for the warbt, «falle Table 32 shows the ostimated quantity of farm crops exported to other parts of Nigeria. An examlnatien of the Tables Show the folloving. Th© percentage of total crop production for the market is qulte high ranging betweea 55 and 75* of total food crop produoed «falle production for the market rose fron a maxioua of 5 % in 1964/65 to 1 % in 1968/69, The food erops which are increasiagly grown for cash are rice, yam, gtdnea com, millet, onion, red pepper and calabash, ln addition to the so food crops, sylvaa pxoduco such as locust UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 231 1wen is gathöred and markoted in large quaatitiea and also shoa nuts ore collectod for sale to trading firma (in 1968/69» 3023 tons of shda nuta wer« aold to trading firma). im m u miwsluwnw e mmsi THE KARKB3? 1065/64, AND 1368/69 CROP 3&130SS Mstriots Hokwa ftmdogari DU® F&Lko Jina/Doko Katcha Crops a b a b a b b a b a bÄ Rice * 40 « 10 • 15 * 10 55 85 60 90 Urb 40 60 50 60 60 80 60 75 15 e 10 * Guinea com 60 70 50 65 50 60 40 55 30 15 35 10 Killet 40 70 40 50 40 60 35 60 • » * * Beane and Oowpeas • 40 10 40 25 30 # 25 20 50 30 SO Onion * 50 * 15* # 25* • 10* 60 85 70 90 Water Kolon 20 50 • * # • * * 40 70 50 75 jiBifa9jfcuiK iTrlön-pi wp roiTirn # 20* # • * # * • 70 90 70 30 fetal crop produc- tion for the market 15 60 45 58 45 60 35 55 50 72 55 15 a. 1963/64. b. 1968/69. * Crops grown an a small acale and mainly for household caneumptlan. Sourcet C&eatiaraaaire Analysis. A greater percentage of crops predneed in the Jima/Katcha/Doko faraing zone (ezoept guiaea com and millet which are grown on a lesser acale) are produced for the market than in either of the other two farming zones and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 232 £ ABM 32i CRQE...KflflKKICH m JUMMPJBfg. Im m a - X tiS J B m & iig L MARKHTING GWlkkü ANP JggUttM JjaWMC' .**011 TOB.ifflUg aiüüa iS 1 9 68 /6 9 (mopmg__simm! Crop Rain Produclng/ Baak »eacport* Sstlmated Marketing Centres periods quaatity ln tone Rice Badeggi, Bida» Do ko, December to Minna» Muregi» May ©,790 Mosshigi, Katcha, Yam Abuja, Bosso, Bwari, November to 18,760 Gwagsalada, Kuta, Minna, May Paiko, Bandogari, Guinea Core öiko, Lapai, Minna, Kokna, Decenber to 6,760 Bails», Itodogari. May Mi11at As for guinea com December to 5,800 May Bi da, Katcha, Unna, October to 5,420 Hofes*. January Galen. Badeggi, Bida» Dok», January to 400 Katcha, Kutigi, May Kolon Badeggi, Katcha, Minna. September to © 0 December Red Popper Badeggi, Bida, Dok», Noveaber to 24 Katcha, Leon. April Calab&ah Di ko, Gwagsalada, November to # Katcha, Lapai» Minna. Beteuary Shea-nut Abuja, Bida, Badeggi, July to 3,028* Katcha, Minna, Mokua. Bebruary (Cont’d.) UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 233 TABLS 52 (Cont»d.) Üstimated Crop Main Producing/ Peak *export* quantity in Marketing Centres perlods tons Cotton Abû Ja, Biko, Cwagwalada, Jsauary to 616*** Leou, Itokwa, Paifeo, April Pandogari, fsgina. Groundnut Bida, MoJewa, Paiko, Octobor to 237*** Pandogari. Doeembor Soynbenns Abuja Itecenber to 330 March Benniseed Abuja August to 111 Decenber 1. Indiente quantity of crope ’exported* to fche ttrban centres of the formst and Judon sonos. * 2hie ia not eaoily conputed in tcns. However, 10 mgona of 20 tons c a p aCity transported calab&sh fron Katcha and Minna betwoen November 1963 and üöbruary 1969. ** Figures for 1968 obtainod fron 9 trading Companies wbo trade in sheanuts in the study area. (ln 1969 aheanut besam a Marks ting Board crop)• *** Marketing Board crop reoords obtainod fron Local Authoritiea. Source i Data obtainod fron (t) Nigerlan nailway Station Masters at Katcha, Badeggi, Hokua and Coaaercial Officer at Minna. (2) Yehicle counts and estimated tonnage at the producing/markating centres in Co­ operation with the field ataff of tho Ministry of Natural Uosourceo. (3) River transport eotimates at Katcha in co-operstion with the Sangawa (head of sailora). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 234 this is a result of the greater development of marketing and transporta» tion facilitieo in the zono. ln Pandogari, ULko and Palko districts only threo crops * yam, guinea com and aillet are growa in large quantitiea fer aale with the peroentage produced for the market ranging between §0 and 80$ in 1%Q/69. The production of regetables such as okro. onlon, red pepper and toaato for the market» which require quick Marketing and ifcich bringe in about 1%' o f fermere' cash retum fpom forming in Jlma/ Doko/Katcha farming zone» is subetantinlly absent in the thrco Matriete. These refleot the higher oost of transportation and leas dcveloped marketing Organisation as a result of the dispereed nature of settlemsnts and sparse Population dlscussed in Chapter 3. Orx the other hand» Mokua, whieh has the least pcpulation density per square alle {t 5)» has its population concentrated an the raain Jebba-Kaduna rail and road and on the Bokani-Blda road» so that marketing Organisation is morn developod than in the other sparse ly populated Districts. ln all the ease study Districts, ho wovor» crop production for the market is so re than half cf famers* total orop production and this is particularly markod at Jims/Doke and Eatoha Districts where crop production for the market are about 7'&> and 75$ of total farm production respoctively. The Biain producing and marketing cuntres for food crops are found ln the more denaely populated Districts of Katoha» Jiaa/Dcko» and the oain pcpulation concentration and transportation centroa such as Bida, Minna» Abuna and Gwagwalada. Qn the other hand, the sparsely populated k t m b such as Alaun» Kuaheriki, Gawun and Bapai auffer fron high tranaportatien oosts and poorly developod marketing facllities. The poor marketing and UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 235 tronsporfcation facilities are responsible for the lower prices for food cropa received by femers in the s parse ly popul/ited Mstricta and this ie further discussed in the next chapter. Zt aay be expeeted that the locational disadvantag« of the Middle Belt farmer vould not «nable hin to compete vith hie counterpart in the fbrest and Sudan zonee vhere the flanSAbWdn̂ centre« for hie farm producta are located» Assuaing that food crop prices, yieldo and produetion costs are constant except the cost of traneporting the producta to the raarket, and if transportation costs increase linear ly ae distance to the raarket increases, then the effect id.ll be that the price received by the Middle Belt farmer declinea vith distance froa the aarketlng centre« Inoreasing produetion froa fnrmere at the marketlng centre and linear decline of prices (rent) vith distance fron the mrket ae veil as damges resulting fron delays and rotting would place the Middle Belt farmer at the 'extensive nörgln of produetion* vhere produetion becoaes lees profitable« While this nodel provides an idealised possibility, nany factors limit its application in real 11 fe situationa. In the first place« the piiee-distanee (rent-distance) relationahip need not b© linear» as trans- portntion rates per xmlt-distanoe often deeline as the distance increases. Ihr example» it costs 4/- to transport one tag of guinea com (100 mudus) fron Paiko to Minna (16 alles) while to transport the aan© bag fron Minna to Kaduna by rail (110 alles) costs 1 6 /» , These givo 30d. per ton-raile for the short distance and 17d. per tcm-aile for the long distance. This is in oonforraity vith Dunn's (1954) Observation that transport rates per distance often decline as the distance increases thereby reducing the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 236 Impact of tmnsportatlon costs on the price paid to tho Hiddle Belt farmer* Secondly, as the Middle Belt food crops are usually in great deaand during periods when locally produced food crops are in short supply in the Forest and Sudan zones, the 'affective' price paid to the Middle Belt farmer enables M m to compote at the market ing centre. For excuaple, 'Abuja yamo' are in great deraand in «eetern Nigeria between February and July ©ach year when locally grown yams are in short oupply, and so yams fron the Middle Belt fetch hi^h prices rising from an average of £32 to £40 per ton between Fobruary and July 1969 at Ibadan. In the third place, product-spocialisation and crop varleties confer a neasure of marketing advantage on the Middle Belt farmer* For example, farmera in the Forest and Sudan zones increaaingly special!so in empört crop produotion and rely on food crops produced in the Middle Belt (United Kations, 1954: 32)« In addition, consuaers in Southern Nireria have special preference for the varleties of rice produced in the study area - BG 79 and MAS 2401 so that "in December 1965» when other varleties of rice were soId at 3/4d. per cigar (cigarette) cup, 'vuli-wuli* rice varleties (from Bida) was sold at 4/-Öd. per cigar cup at Qnitaha market" (Onyemelukwe, J.O.C., 1970: 170 & 239). It is thus eloar that personal tastes of Consumers affect the demand sohedule and prices of food crops produced in the study area* Sven though the Middle Belt farmer still suffers from locatioaal disadvantage as coaparcd with his counterpart in the Forest and Sudan zones, the inoreasing Integration of the Nigerian economy leading to a greater UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 237 development of tbe internal exchange econoray of the country mables the fermer to secure markets for his producta and oonaecjuently to iacrease the level of production and coisaaercialisation of hia agriculture. atitec Ja'm m . Closely connected eith lncreasing oonaercialisation of agrlonlture is the rislng level of income in the study area. The level of income could be used as & measure of change from subaistence to comorcialised agrlculture and also as a measure of the level of rural ©eoaomlc develop­ ment« An estiaation of the farmers* income from the sale of farm crops, livestock and off-farm (secondary oeeupations; sourcos was aade and the average for the case study Mstricts are givea in Table 55« An examination w m ., Dlstrict Bet ferm Income Kram Off-fem $ Derived Inccsae* Total From ferm Mvestook* Income® Income Crops Hotem 61.5 6.2 8.5 76.0 80.7$ Pandogari 54.5 5.5 5.0 65.0 86.5$ Mko 63.2 10.6 9.6 88.4 77.1$ Falke 62.8 6.5 4.2 75.5 85.4$ Jima/öok» 86.5 7.0 19.6 115.1 76.5$ Katcha 92.4 8.5 22.5 125.4 74.9$ Sample 71.1 7.4 11.5 89.3 79.2$ a. This excludes the value of crops consuaed in the household* b. This is income derived froa poultry, pigs, sheop and goats. e« This is income derived aainly froa trade and craftwork. Sourcet Held survey questionnaire Analysis. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 238 of the tablc shows that the average income per houaehold Is £89,3 per year with 79,2$ of thia derived from farm sources. This level of Income is higher than the £60 per household eatimated for Niger Province in 1965 (Nigeriai 1966t 31 )• It is also higher than the average eatimated level of income and expeaditure of £62,9 per houaehold in the Kaao Close- Settled zone (Kortimore, K.J. & Wilson, J. 1965t 64-87), It is however lower than the average income per houaehold at four Zaria villages eatimated at about £100 with 7*$5 of it derived from farm sources (Norman, D.W. 1972t 106 & 118), WLthin the case study Dis tri cts, the lowest average income (£63) was recordöd at Pandogari and the highest ̂ 123,4) was recorded at Katcha, The higher level of income at Katcha reflects the greater deve- lopaants of agricultural commercinlisation, intcnsity of land use, crop varieties and marketing facilities, It also rufleots tho opportun!tias for oi'f-faxm empiojaent discussed in chapter four, Söven though the average income per household in the study area is lower than those of 2eria villagee, tho faot that average income has risen from £60 in 196$ to £99,3 in 1969 (43$ increase in income) indicateo that far reaching improvemant in the rural economy are taking place, ttonalng the mddle Belt from a lagging to a growing acne in the country, The grovth in income also refleets the inoreasea in the level of production for the market (Table 30 and 31) and the general rise in the prices of main food crops produced in the study area which has been discussed in Chapter Six. The effectB of the rising level of income oan be observed all over UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 239 the study area vith increaaea in the nuaber of bicyclos, autocyclos, radio, iron roofing, com and rice mills in uae aa well as the increase in the number of aonual pilgrimages to 14ecca noted in chapter three which rose fron 122 in 1967 to 398 in 1969* in addition, new nceds for the acquisition of aanufhatured producta, payment of chiidren*s school feea etc« are being feit by the population all over the study area and theae needs aot aa fuxthor Impetus to increased rural production. The increase in rural production is xeflectod in the increasing intensity of land-uae noticeable in every part of the study area« Of particular aignificanco is tha increase in aoreage of land cultivated as a reault of eaepansion of the soale of cultivation by indigenous farmers and Immigration of fhnaere fron the Sudan Sone. tte noted in chapter 3 that many lausa farnors and fishermen and Fulani her&snon fron the Sudan sone are settling in thia part of the Middle Belt and in chapter 5 wo also noted timt many Hausa men who cone as Immigrant farm labourors often sottle down having obtained farms of their own in the conmunal aystem of land tenure in the sparsely populated Districta. For exanple, of the total 914 tax payers in Kwangoma hist riet (Pandogari) in 1936/39» only 65 were Hausa Immigrantb , but in 196^ 69 the number of liausa immigrants had risen to 185 out of the total 1.234 tax payers. In Jim/doko and Paiko Bistricts many oattle ühlaai grase their cattlc throughout tlie year, thereby iaprovLng the fertility of the farmlands and uakiag oontinuous cultivation possible. The Hausa imai grant faxmers all over the study area increase the total ferm acreage cultivated and aal» intensive use of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 240 f . Another factor making for incroasing intoasity of 1-md use is the use of fertiliaer and contiauous cultivation of farralands» partioularly in the Jima/Doko/Kaicha farain,;; Zone, In thls zone wfaore continuous cultivation is especially mrked, total fertiliaer used in 1961 was 2 bags of superphosphates and 112 tags ef sulphate of Armonla, In 1968 the fertiliaer used increasod to 141 bags of suporpfaosphate and 1064 bags Of auphate of ̂ maonia. The application of 2 cwt. superphosphats per acre on fadaaa rice haa brought about Inereased yield from an avera-« of 1,250 Ibs. rice paddy to 2,100 lbs. and 2,150 Ibs. per acre at Doko and Katoha. ro a p e o tlv o ly , 2!» succeaa aciiioved ln f & r t iü s e r application on rice now encourages farmers to use fertilisors especially sulphate of amnonia on guinea com, riillet and yama. Fertiliaer use in the other case study Districts was wrin-inmi as the aparse population still allows extensive cultivation and the practice of rotational bush fullouing. Fertilisers are however gradually being used on upland and fadaim rice and it is hoped that the success achieved on rice plota will oacourage fansei« to apply fertiliaer on other food cropa. The study axea is traditionally considered an one of the riverain areas of Northern Nigeria and is fairly ondoued witli water resourees such as Rivere Niger, Kaduna, Cbako, Gurara, Husa, läipaako and a nuraber of sraaller atreama. Aa early ae 1944# C.J. Ra© drow attention to the *1 1. Figures obtained from Hinistry of Natural Resourees, Bida. 1 bag of the fsrtilisera veighs 56 lbs. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 241 "immense poasibilities" existing for the development of Irrigation in th# extensive fkdaaa extending for many alles on the left banks of Niger and Xaduaa rlvers and along the valley of Cbako river which he conserva- tively estioated to extend to over 200,000 acreas (äae, C.J. 1944t 9-22)« dubsequent surveys and reports oontinue to eaphasiae the potoatialities for the development of irrigatidn in the axea, and preliainary soll and land Classification surveys by Balfour Ueatty and SaUSCö indicate that €00,000 aeres of land aro available for agricultural development either on an estate or peasant-f&ruor basis in the Niger flood plain beteeen Jebba and Lokoja alone. Over half of this acreage 1s on the left bank of the Niger and of theee only about 50,000 aores aro cultivated at present. In addition to the existence of extensive fadaaa and land suitable for Irrigation development, iäae observed that the Hupe who inhabit the area "are vater-edaded" and "have shown a very encouraging' underotanding of the fundamental principles of the effective use of «ater for Irrigation purposes" (%©» C.J., 1944t 9)* In many plaoea the people have constructed through laborious communal effort, small chock dass and bunds, diverting small streams into th® fields and have sueceeded in irrigating surprisingly largo area». These ainor schönes are naturally not up to design Standardst they are liable to fhilure durlng heavy flood and do mit provide for adequate «ater oontrol. Novertheless, they do indicate the Increasing Investments the Middle Mit faraer is sakLng in order to raise the aorsage and intensity of his cultivation as «eil as agricultural productivity. Barmers nov Invest their own time, effort and money ln increasiag their farm acreage under cultivation ly draining river flood plains, building UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 242 Irrigation Channels, daran and bunds, as well aa by «sing nhrAif to bring water to th® uplands in the dry oeason. At present, hmdrods of aoall Irrigation achenies are found all over the study area devoted to the cultivatioa of rice, sug&r cane, onions, tomatoes and other vegetablea. The reasona for the development of Irrigation sehe es particularly in the Jima/Doko/Katclia farming eone are not far fetched, Ue noted in chapter one that in a di Vision of Nigeria into regions based on the relationship between the mean annual water surplus and the nean annual water defleiency, the water deficit of the Kiddle Belt cxceods eurplus by nearly 500 ran. (Garnier, B.J. 1957t 554). The need to mxlrai3e eultivable land and spread farm work throughout the year through irrigation therefore underlioa the development of irrigation schönes, ln addition, faraers have realiaed that orop yields are higher on irrlgated fields than on fields depending on rain water, and this is illustrated by Table 32 giving rice yields on different types of faraland. Kven though ferliliser application was partly responsible for the higher yields on irrlgated farns, the fact roaains that the greater level of yields per acre juslifies Irrigation fanaing in the study area. Horeover, Irrigation allows a greater variety of crops to be grown ao can be aeen in the Jiiaa/Doko/Katcha fsrtaing aone where rice, onion, peppor, sugar cane and other vogetables are grown on a large scale. Table 35 and Hg, 21 Show the main irrigation cchcraes in the study area. It can be sem fron flg. 21 that nearly all the scheoes are based on the tributaries of Hiver Niger in the donsely populated Districts, while Table 5 4 showB that of the total potential of 23,300 acres only 6,151 aerea UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Fig 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 243 •TABU Ml paj)dy aics H am oii p itm mi tipb of a i a (ms. pj.. acm) Type of f& m Mokwa Pandogari Diko Paiko Jima; / Bote Katcha Upland 900 850 950 950 1260 1300 1500 1200 1500 1250 2100 2150 Irrigated Shrtn * 1850 * 1800 * 2750 2750 f Increase Upland vs« 105«6 * 89.5 • 118.3 111.5 Irrigation * So irrigated farm was found in the District. Sources Held survey in eo-operation with the oxiicials of the Minietry of Agriculture. (24.4$) are cultivated at present while the oaintenance of the exiating sebemes (including thooe clained to be naintained by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Local Authoriiles for whick fanaers are charged £1.2/-6d. per aore) is oainly the responsibility of the local färmere, While discusaing cultivated fadamn in the section on land-use earlier, wo noted the contrast in the development of fadaiaa cultivation and Irriga­ tion betveen the deneely populated Hupe Districta and other parts of the study area» and observed that population pressure and lack of extensive uncultivated upland as in other parts of the study area night have been responsible for the development of fadaaa and Irrigation in the ’Cis-Kaduna* MLstriota of Nupeland. Tte also note höre that famers in the sparsely populated Districts of the study area have initiated very few Irrigation scheraos» and that the llttle dry-seaaon Irrigation that täte3 place along UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 244 TA ALS; 351 HAIN ITOSATIOH SC1EMB3 Cultivated Constructian SchesM» Xear Potential Acreage andGpened Aereages 1963/69 Xaintenance 1. Badeggi* 1955/56 2.600 1*572 H.0.A./L.A.* 2. Wuya-üdoshigi* 1956/57 3,000 1,804 0 0 3. Loguna* 1958/59 400 245 1» N 4. Tork» 1958/59 200 80 f&rmers 5, Sdo-Lapai* 1961/62 80 80 H.0.A./L.A.* 6. Ganazhigi Ho record 500 450 Farmers 7. Ja*agi 0 0 400 300 N 8. Kpaiyi f» n 350 300 0 9* Makufun « 0 70 70 0 10, Asbero » 0 150 150 0 1t. Kutigberi » » 100 100 m 12. Baratsu « » 100 100 m . 13. Byagi n w 50 50 M 14. «abba-Kesho** 1968/69 5,000 60 If.O.A. 15. Cfuaan 1968/69 2.600 140 0 16. Bakoji Ho record 12,000 500 Farmers 17. Sbbo 0 ft 1,200 150 n Total 28,800 6,151 * Lehemes oonstructed by the Miniatry of agriculturo but mintained and supervieed by the Local Authority. * * iabba-Küsho Schea© m e paart of the defunct Higer Agricultural Protect« 1t was discontinuad in 1954 but a pilot scheine was started in 19&y 69. Sourcei Held ourvey in co-Operation with the offlcials of the Irrigation Division of the Kiniatry of Agrlculture. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 245 the v&lleys of the small streams is undertaken aainly by 1omi .-rant H&usa fsraors from Sokoto» Saria, Katsina and Kano. The flood plains of rivers Kaduna and Gurara in the sparsely populated Gwari Diatriets of Kuta and Knall respectively are not developed for Irrigation as intensively as are the flood plains of Ganaahigi and Ambero in Jim/Ootoo and Kateha Distriots respectively. The maaerous tributaries of the Niger in the sparsely populated Hupe District of Mokwa are also not developed for Irrigation. The development of irrigatlon in the denaely populated *Cia- Kaduna' öi stricte rny the re for e be seen as a response to population pressure on the land and not necesaarily as a cultural heritage of the fiupe trlbe. Xt is to be expeoted thereforo, that inereaaing population and sustained inereaaed denand for food crops gross throu._-h Irrigation ae «eil aa govornment Investment will further development Irrigation in this pari of the iiiddle Belt. JaamaiM. S&üaaüteutLMM. C lose ly connected v± th the development of Irrigation schönes is the increaslng oultivation of rice, the introduction of ■uhioh has been traced to about a oentury ago when ths first crop «as g ra m at äshigi near the Kaduna river (Linas, S.W. 1943* 89). The first record of rice prodwetion in this area «as made by Lord Lugard in 1904» when he observed that a considerable quantity of rice «as produced in the swarapy banks of the Niger, Kaduna and Bern» rivers. The first official actlon to oncourage rice produetion «as taken in 1920 by Thomton, Superintendent of Agrloul- turs» when he established tvo trial plots at Badeggi and Bdosshigi. The seeds obtainod fron these trial plots were distrlbuted to local fazsers UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 246 and theae efforts went oa intermittently at the Badeggi Agricultural Station uatil Pebruary 1931 wben the hadegöi Station m s closed down on aocount of financial atringeney (Minprof 75* Kaduna). Uouever, before the closing down of the Station* rice production had becazae an established industry among the Hupe, for the plentiful water supply and extensive fafema avallable provide ideal phyrfoal oonditians for rice productioa {Srist, D.H. 1959* 11 and Agboola, S.A. 1962t 117-110). Tb» Oecond World War provided the iacentive for large-scale productioa* wfaich atarted about 1940 with governaent encour&gemont and local enthu- siasm fe rn faraers, when the Slogan aswng the authorities was "ervery grain of rice, a bullet for a German" (Lines, O.tf* 1945)* Rice production was stepped up and in 1940, 7cunant L(60) 127. CCTa/CSA. Buchanan, K.K. (1953) "The Northern Regien of Nigeria* .The Geograph!cal Background of Xte Political Daallty". Seoaranhioal Review. Vol. 43, pp. 451 - 473. Buchanan, K.M. and Pugh, J.C. (1955), feRfl Ük PXmiA*. \ London.) • Gharch, R.J.H. (1957), Mftft iflAfia» (london). forde, p. and Scott, R. (1964), B^JbttJlJhiaggild C£ (London)• Gallettl, et. al. (1956), ütolfiBL Cpp-QaJtoiEa» (öfford). Garnier, B.J. (1957)* "Clinatic Aspects of Irrigation Development in Nigeria", The Mvaacaaeat of Science. Toi. 13» No* 52. pp. 351 - 354. Gleav», H.B. and White, H.P. (1969), "The West Afrioan Middle Belt* anrironswntal Phot or Geographer'e Picticn?" tePtmMStäRmXW» Toi. 59, No. 1, pp. 123 - 139. Ölover, P.B. (1961), in Northern Nigeria. (Nairobi). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 266 Higgtns, G.H. j Ramaay, D.H. and Pullan, R.A (i960), "4 Raport on the Clinate, Solls and Vegetation of the Niger Trough", Bulletin Ho« 10. Institute for Agricultural Research, Saaaru. Kday, V.J. (1949), Kaay, W«J, (1959), "Rerived Gsvarna - Dsrived fr« What?" iUH.ll« (1958), (Lenden). Hortixaore, H.J. and WLls«, J. (1965), "land and People in the Ean© Close-Settled Zone“, Occaalmal frmar No. 1 v Department of Geography, A.B.Ü., Zaria. Nigeriai (1967), 1966 (Kaduna)• Nigeri&i (1968), Northern Region, 1966/67 Annual Report of the Inspection fitrisl«, Rtnistry of Agrioulture, (Kaduna). Presoott, J.R.V. (i960), "4 Re-eacaninatlon of the Political Baals of the Middle Belt Oonoept", Unpublished paper read at the Nigerlan Geograph!cal Conference, Zaria« if R.A. (1962), "The Ceneept of the Hiddle Belt in Uigeriai in attempt at a Cllaatie Definition', Vol. 5, Ho« 1, pp. 39 - 52. Tomlins«, P«R« (1965), "Solls of Northern Nigeria", aarwru MaoaHanftau« Paper Ho« 11« U(.RH.F.)4..0. (1965), o m l, 1.4. and Coldsvorthy, P.R. <1965), "Soll Fertility Ixweatigationa in tho Hiddle Belt of Nigeria", Bulletin Ho. 52. TSiethaa, R.H. (1966), "Dlminishing Returns and Agrioulture in Northern NigeriaJournal of Agricultural üteonocdoa. Vol« 17, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 267 iboyade, O« (1969) "The Development Prooess"# Paper preaanted at the Conference an National Reconstruction «ad DOTeloianent in Nigeria# Harch 24*29# 1969* (l«I#3»8»R*| Ibadan) Baldwin, K.D.3. (1927) fl», (Orfocd). Balduin# R.B. (1964) "Pntterna of Sevelopncnt in Newly Settlad Regions" fLeber, C. and Witt, L. ad« Aarlcnltur« in H g | Bewelcraait. (New York). Brolunaha, B. (1965) fiBtitaffi aftfl flCMflS. ItarglgattSftt .ttLTgfflglefA. AftlCa» Research Seriös Ho« 9# Institute of International Studios# University of Califamia# Berkeley« Buobanan# K.H. and Pöflh# J.C. (1955) kBfl fUlfl PttBlft ift fllfiffltiA (London). Callaway, A«C« (i960) "School Loavers and the Develojdng Bccrtomy of Nigeria", ln a J A J A . Deoember 1960# \Ibadaa)• Clark# C« (1968) Population Qrewth und UmA Ua« (London)- Bicher, G«K» (1967) "The Dynanios of leng-fern Agricultural Development in Nigeria"# Journal of I hm Bconomlca ?ol- 49# Ho« 5# PP. 1158-1170. Fei# J.C.H. and fcnis# G. (1964) Devc SSiXSZ (R ic h a rd B« Ir w in , Illinois# for the Scanceic Grovth Centre# Yale Universxty) • Q to f» a.t . (1957) faHri M d Fmtogg ( Printer# Kaduna)« Hellelner# G.K. (1967) "Typology in Bsvelogment Theoaryi The Land Surplus äcxmvB? (Nigeria)" ffgflRf1lf3if1tg*,1 94. S t t t o . i , faffifiE lfo . i f l f c(Yale Univeraity), pp. Hodder, B.¥.(1968) apfflgnlg Pmtaaftttt jfl tteJSSEtag (London).# Kao# H.C., Anschel, K.R. and Richer# C.K. (1964) "Dleguised Unonploynant in Agriculturet A Survey"# in C.K« Bicher and Lawrence Vitt# eda«# AfiriLgiltNm f a . J g f f l f f l l t , P P « 129*144 (New York). Lewis# W.A. (1954) "BconoBdo Development with ünliaited Suppliea of Labour", riaftofaiatw gnhaol of aortnl anA fiaamrtfi r«tntfl1fra# voi. m i , ho. 2. Lerts# W.A. (1955) The Theorv of Sccnonic Grarth. (deerge Allen and Unwin# London). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 268 Lcrnln» tf.A. (1953) ,'£teonoEaic Development with Unlinited Supp lies af Labour - Hürther Notes", Toi. XXVI, So. 1. Lewis, W.A.(l9ffT) ____ (N.I.S.S.R., Bsbogtmje, A. (1970) "Higration Policy and Regional Devolopnent ln Nigeria* Toi. 12, Ho. 2» pp. 243 Kortimore, 11.J. and Wilson, I. (1965)» settlad 7.003. (Ahmadu Bello it of Geo^raphy Ocoasional Raper Ho. 1» 2azla). Itountjoy, A.B. (1969) (London). Hyint, H, (1993) "The •Classical Cheory* of International Trade and the Uhderdeveloped Ootmtrleen, floonoalo Journal. Toi. 68, pp, 317-37 Mylnt, H. (1964), (London). Hyiat, 1. (196$), "Sooncudc Xiicory and l&xderdeveloped Couatries". .t e MZ» *o u 74. Borth, Douglas (1955) "Looaticoal Xheory and Regional M . L i m . pp. 243-38. Ckun, B. and Richardaon, R.W. (1961), Regional Internal Kopulation Migration". Toi. 9, pp. 128-143. *, N.7. (1939) (Gaaritt&dge Uhivor3ity Prosa). Stolper, V.?. (1966) Oniveris&l tByf ePfrfHeTsOsf,t ACtamobariitdtgie, Udo, R.K* Il963) "Ratterns of Kopulation Distribution and Settlenmt in ÜUaan, S.L. (1956) "The Sole of Transportation and the Bases for Interaoticn* in Thomas, L.T. ed United Natians (1939) Department of Boononlc UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 269 udanlyi, E.O. (1970) "Th» Impact ef th® Chang» in River Regine an iäconomic Activities Be low th© Kainji Deos", Bigegbrn 2SF£2T2>lti&£ LmmX Vol- 13* **»• 2, pp, 175-135. Agboola, S.A. (1968) "Population Distribution in the Middle Pelt of Nigeria" in CaMwell, J.C. and OkenJ o. C. (ed.) The flgWÜfrtlJHX fi£ XBrtttk Attfoa. (London), pp. 291-?97. 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A Report to the Colonial Social Seienco Research Council, (London), H.M.3.0. Smith, F,G« (1965) "Hauaa Inherltance and Succossion" in J.O.K. Derrett (ed.), J A Vti&ZXa» (London), pp. 247 - 251. Adegboye, £.0. (1964) J‘ n ihrĉ x>h Ranqging Befects in Lond..M»yi.t.aproJ Ph.D. thesls, Iowa State Univorwity (üapublishod) • Adegboye, E.O. (1967) 'The Heed for Land Reform in Nigeria*• M üä&if Toi. 9, No. 3, pp. 339 - 350. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 272 Balduin, K.D.3. (t957) Tfcft-Itlgcr AffllgnMrol T ro to e t (Orford). coi«, c#i?» (1948) ataaüL m J a r t J E a r a u a i a A M a t (*&*»»). *>!©• C.W. (1949) HggPrt <3ft k m flTTTaPg* (Kaduna). Lue&rd, F.I>. (1906) Ifiilto Mffgirtflg AKTOR* (Lenden). Lunins, H.A. (1963) 1P Uaduna). Lüning, H.A* (1969) *i*he Impact ©£ Sodo-oconosdc Factors an the Land Tenure Pattern in Horthera UUswit», Jttwmfll a£.k?gUJ.ftBLi Ovcrseas, Vol. 4, p?. 173 ~ 162. ITadel, S.F. (1942) ____ Klgerla (London) ■iff.JftOaffiaJUk Eeek, C.L. (1937) i M TOTCT MWalstof ifl fiBfl ,tt# äW BSSM p Hesr Hajesty»» iätationery Office, (London)« Kortisor*, K.J. A Wilson, J. (1965) 'Laad and People in the Sano Close-Settled Zone*. JptfflMyJiJBOttCMdOLflaflMaJBftjL X-nner Ko. 1, Ufflftdtt Belle tMrersity, Saria. Rational Aretdrea, Sadunai (l) MtnRrof File Io. B1332. (2) • ■ 37303. Nigeria (1910)| 'Laads and Satire Righte rroclamation 1910', Lara of JS&fijaatSgCtoa,tft flX ffcWTia» Cbapter iro, (London). Nigeria» Plaa.„i9£2-63 (Lagos). OlTiwaSKRgi, E.A. (i960) ’A^rieulturo in a developing econoay', j&-&fiaaall3KaL la m & m s m , 234 - 244. Oluwasanm(ir,b a2d.aAH./ •(1$66) , Amgi^ftgg attk MflEFiaft ÜSPACfllfi SSTtiJXnmXß Eowling, C.W. (1949) 3flgadLffi. JqBKttlJatia. &.k*kP3.f.ce (Sadtma). Rin:ton, F.H. (1916) Mr.nirt w (Landen). u.s.ÄA.0. (1965) Fiarrta». lafiärlSSB. (Lome). Adeniyi, Ü.C. (1970) "The Impact of the Chang© ln River Regime on Sooncwic Activitioo Below KmUtt ftua". jftflayftflft,, fifigg&Lhtfifll. Journal. Vol. 15, So. 2, pp. 175-183. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY \ 273 Agboola, 3.A. (1962) "Soma Goographlcal Influenoes on th» Population tnd Economy of tha iüddle Balt Mat of the Niger*, Unpubliohed M«A« fheais (London). AMwowo, 19A.6A8.* . etP.a p»e1r. pr(e1s969) tion and Developmeenntte d " Naitg ertihaa* CoESnofoenroin Nigeria, N.I.e ai Sn.c o ea ndB.Ro.n, NSoc aItbi ioanla lS uRrevceoy 1958adan. nstruc ­to Allan, V. (1965) The AfVtcan Huahanaan. (London). Anthonio, Q.B.O. (1967) "Iba Stagwnt Sector* in thTao Ni.i ge2,r iNaon. Bc3,onomy". K.D.3. (1957) Northern Nigeria Kinistry of Agrieulture, , P.T. (1954) Benedict,( HR. . Sh(a1p9i56r)o , "aTdh.a Q),r oNweth* oYfo rCk.ulture" in Boserup, 8. (1965) Boohanan, K. ft Pugh, J.C. (1955) Chishola, H. (1962) Church, R.R.J. (1957) Mat Afrioa (London). Douglas, H. (1962) "Lala Boonony campared vith tha Bushong t A Study of Boonosde Baokmrdness" in Harketc ln Afrloa ad. Bohannan, P. & Balten, 6«, North-Metera University Gloave fto rd xGLeteo gr(1a9p6h9a)r 's" ThPal oWteisotn ?A"f riGcaaong rMaindhdllQe* !B aRletg*i e*B.a vTiorio.n ao59n,t aHlo .I hc1t. Qrove, A.NTi.g er(i1a96"t )i n "BPaorpbuoluart,i oKn. ND.e nfsti ties anLondon, Fprpo.t he1r1o d 5, Agrieul(taudr.)e in Northern -13R6.H.. Harvey, D.W. (1966) "Thaoratieal Concapta and tha Analysta of Agricultural Land-ösa Patterns in Seography". A.A.A.Q.. Toi. 56, pp. 361-374. Hill, Bolly (1968) "The Myth of tha Anorphous Paasantry* A Northern Nigerlan Case Study". UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 274 a u , Pollj (1970) Studio. ln Rural Caultalli (Cambridge üniversity Press). i.b.r . d. (1954 ) (Lagos ** ) . Jacoby, B.H. (1955) JtoaralattflMtoEilgrgffl AgartaR.Rsforp «tö jBtfalülLlftBBM&il flya)to (1970) tBacita) Horaan, D. V. (1972) "An aiconomic Surtrey of Ihres Villages in 2Arla Province* 2 laput * output Study"_________ Ho. 37# Institut« #or Agricultural Research, (Saaaru.; CnyraaelukMe, J.O.C. (1970) "Staple food Trade in Onitaha Harket* An Scample of Urban Harket Distribution functian" Uhpubliehad Fh.B. Thesis (ibadan) Rae# C. J. (1944) Deport on Agricultural Bev-elopnonts by means of Irri­ gation and Drainage in Nigeria". Oapublished Hemo, (Lagos) • U f f an, H. (1971) "Changing Patterns of Ihratug in Goobe üfcdrate, North Rastern State, Nigeria" aaaaaru Higcellftneoug Pacar Ho. 32, Institute for Agricultural Research, (sanaru). UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 278 VJSm (1954) ä a la rß m cn t of the Qxcbmge in Tropical ifrica, Departwmt of Kconomic Affaira p York). Steife, Boaerup, fi# (1965) (London) Clark* C. (1968) (London). Jotas ton» B.F. and Hellor, J.W. (1961) "The role of Agrtculture in Ko. 4 pp. 566-595. Horxaan, ö.W. (1970) "Initiating Change in Traditionel Agricultux*©" ITorth, D.C. (1964) "Agriculturo in Regional Orowth* in A^rioxaturo Kicher, C. and Witt, L. Kd. pp. 69-73. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 279 APfrEHPIX I (a); AGiC DISTRIBUTION: HOKWA Äge/Years Male Fernale Total % Cumulative K/F% Ratio 0 - * 35 28 63 18.3 18.3 1,250 5 - 9 23 25 *8 13.9 13.2 920 10 - 19 31 3* 65 18.8 51.0 911 2 0 - 2 9 27 32 59 17.1 68.1 8*3 3 0 - 3 9 21 23 ** 12.8 80.9 913 *0 - 49 15 16 31 9.0 89.9 937 5 0 - 5 9 12 10 22 6.* 96.3 1,200 6 0 - 6 9 * 6 10 2.9 99.2 666 70* 3 3 0.8 100.0 Total 168 177 3*5 100 .0 9*9 APPENDIX I (b) t AGB DISTRIBUTION: PAKDOGARI Age/Yesre Male Feraale Total % Cuaulative M/F % Ratio 33 31 6* 17.1 17.1 1,06* 5 - 9 26 25 51 13.6 30.7 1,0*0 10 - 19 39 36 75 20,0 50.7 1,083 2 0 - 2 9 30 36 66 17.6 68.3 833 3 0 - 3 9 21 32 53 1*.1 82.* 656 *0 - *9 16 19 35 9,3 91.7 8*2 5 0 - 5 9 10 11 21 5*6 97.3 909 6 0 - 6 9 * 5 9 2.4 99.7 800 70+ - 1 1 0.3 100.0 Total 179 196 375 100.0 913 0 1 U ■frNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 280 AFPEKDIa X (c) i AGB DI^TfciaUIlON» DIKO , Age/Yeara K a ie Female Total Cumulative M/F% % Batio 0 - 4 26 25 51 18,4 18.4 1,040 5 - 9 22 20 42 1 5 .2 33.6 1,100 10 - 19 30 22 52 18 .8 52.4 1.363 20 - 29 19 25 44 15.9 68.3 760 30-39 15 17 32 11.5 79.8 882 4ü - 49 9 10 19 6.8 86.6 900 50-59 9 12 21 7.6 94.2 750 60-69 4 6 10 3.6 97.8 666 70 + 2 4 6 2.2 100 .0 500 Total 136 141 277 100 .0 964 APFKNPIX I Cd); AGS D15TRIBUTI0Kt PaIKC Age/Yeara Kaie Female Total Cumulative K/F % Batio 0 - 4 29 27 56 17.3 17.3 1.074 5 - 9 26 23 49 15.2 32.5 1.130 10 - 19 34 29 63 19.5 5 2 .0 1.172 20-29 26 22 48 14.9 66.9 1 ,1 8 1 30-39 18 15 33 10.2 77.1 1,200 40-49 18 13 31 9.6 86.7 1,384 50-59 17 13 30 9.3 96.0 1,307 60-69 3 5 8 2.5 98.5 600 70+ 2 3 5 1.5 100.0 666 Total 173 150 323 10c .0 1,153 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 281 AFPSKDIX X (e) i AgE DlagtflBPTIOli: EOKO Age/Yeare Kalo Female . Total % Cumulative M/F* Ratio 0 - h 23 22 *5 13.* 13.* 1,0 »»5 5 - 9 21 19 11.9 25*3 1,105 10 - 19 2h 23 h7 13.9 39.2 1,01*3 20 - 29 30 33 63 18.8 58.0 909 3 0 - 3 9 29 33 62 18.5 76.5 878 i»0 - if9 22 23 45 13.1» 89.9 956 5 0 - 5 9 11 9 20 5.9 95.8 1,222 6 0 - 6 9 k 7 11 3.3 99.1 571 70+ 1 2 3 0.9 100 .0 500 Total 1o5 171 336 100.0 96h APPKNDIX I (f): AGE DlSTBlaUTIOHi KATCHA Age/Yeare Male Feraale Total Cumulative K/F% % Ratio 0 - 1* 23 21 1*1* 1i* .1 11*.1 17C95 5 - 9 19 20 39 12.5 26 .6 950 10 - 19 2h 25 1*9 15.7 1*2.3 960 2 0 - 2 9 25 29 5i» 17.3 59.6 862 3 0 - 3 9 25 28 53 17.0 76.6 892 i«3 - 1*9 18 21 39 12.5 89.1 857 5 0 - 5 9 8 10 18 5.8 91».9 800 6c - 69 5 6 11 3 .5 98.1* 833 70+ 2 3 5 1.6 10C .0 666 Total 11*9 163 312 100.0 911* üource: Appendix I (a-f) Field Survey ^uestionnaire Analysis. UNIVERSITY OF I ADAN LIBRARY 282 PESB3IX XI U)t 1952 POPULATION C-..̂ U£,: nü=: LICI^IBÜTIONt HOKWA DXSTftICT Age-Iears Male Female Total % of Total Cumulative M /F% Hatio Under 2 86*» 93^ 1,798 7.7 7,7 925 2 - 6 1,828 1,89* 3,722 16 ,0 23.7 965 7 - 11» 1.393 1,515 2,908 12,5 36.2 919 15 - **9 6,5^5 6,103 12,648 5 M 90,5 1,072 Over 50 933 1 ,2 6 6 2,199 9,*» 99.9 736 Total 11,563 11,712 23,275 99,9 987 APPENDIX II (b)? 1952 POPULATION C I W S P S i AGfi DISTRIBUTION i PANDOGf