PREDISPOSING FACTORS TO EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG MARRIED MEN IN IBADAN NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA BY FAGBEMI, MOSES ODUNLADE RN, RAEN, B.Sc. (Health Ed. Nsukka) MATRIC NO.: 130692 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH (POPULATION AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH) IN THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH PROMOTION AND EDUCATION, FACULTY OF PUBLIC HEALTH, COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN MAY, 2012 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to God, the Almighty who has in His infinite mercy allowed me to be counted among the group of MPH professionals at last. I am much more grateful for His grace, Love and Help. ii CERTIFICATION I certify that this study was carried out by Moses Odunlade FAGBEMI in the Department of Health Promotion and Education, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. ____________________________________ Supervisor Dr. Oyewole O.E. RD; M.Sc; MPH; Ph.D (Ib), Department of Health Promotion and Education, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine. University of Ibadan. Nigeria. Date: ………………………………………… iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My profound gratitude goes to the almighty God and Father in highest, for what He has done, what He is doing and what He will still do in my life. My gratitude also goes to my diligent supervisors Dr. I. O. Olaseha (Rtd.) former Head of Department of Health Promotion and Education and Dr. O.E.Oyewole for being a great source of inspiration and encouragement. Their advice was professional and fatherly during the course of this study. Also, I would like to appreciate our father, the Dean, Faculty of Public Health, Professor Oladimeji Oladepo for his fatherly roles, great source of inspiration and encouragement for all students in the department of Health Promotion and Education and the new Head of Department of Health Promotion and Education- Prof. A. J. Ajuwon, More grease to your joints sir. I am particularly grateful to Dr. O. Arulogun who was also a source of great encouragement and God sent helper in times of need. Thank you so much aunty for your concern and care. My gratitude also goes to other academic staff of the department, Viz: - Professor J. D. Adeniyi, Dr. F. O. Oshiname, Mr. M. Titiloye and Mrs. Y. John Akinola. I appreciate you all. May God continue to shower His blessings on you Sir. All the Non-academic staffs were equally appreciated for your efforts. I would like to express my gratitude to my friend, a colleague in Nursing and in academic field Dr.M.Ojedokun who encouraged me to pursue this master‟s degree programme. Thank you. I also appreciate my Sectional Head and ward leader Mrs.O.A.Okunola, and Alhaji Bamgbade for their moral support and perseverance. I also thank my data analysts Bro. Femi Dipeolu. I cannot but mention the various contributions of these classmates of mine: John Imaledo, and Abiodun, Adeoye Bamgbopa, (my class reps.), Okosun ThankGod, Olaolu, Ngosi, Dr. Adebisi, Mrs. Orenuga, Pastor Asiyanbola, Oluwole Oluwadumila, Mrs. Olaniyi, Oba Munirudeen Adesola Lawal (the new Timi of Edeland) and my other classmates I could not mention here. I appreciate you all. I cannot forget my precious wife Mrs. Rachael Omobola Fagbemi and my children: Oluwapelumi, Aanu-oluwapo, Itunu, Tolulope, and Oluwajomiloju for their understanding and endurance during the period of the study. You will be great in life in Jesus name (Amen). - Fagbemi, M.O. iv ABSTRACT In Nigeria there is anecdotal evidence that married men are more likely to engage in extramarital sexual intercourse than married women. The predisposing factors to this social phenomenon have however not been systematically investigated enough. This study was therefore aimed at identifying factors that predispose married men to extramarital sexual activities in Ibadan North Local Government Area (LGA). The study was a descriptive cross-sectional survey. A 3-stage sampling technique was used to select 400 married men from workplaces in six of the twelve wards in the LGA. Data were collected using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) guide. Six FGDs were conducted with each comprising eight participants. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic approach while quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square at 5% level of significance. The mean age of the respondents was 38.8 ± 8.7 years, 89.3% were Yoruba, 50.5% were Christians, and more (45.0%) of the respondents had secondary education. Majority (73.8%) of the respondents were in monogamous unions. Thirty-seven percent had ever had extramarital sexual relationship and of this 59.1% were in monogamous union. Few (23.1%) engaged in the act when their wives traveled while 76.9% did so even when their wives were available. Only 8.8% used a condom during extramarital sexual acts. Reasons for involvement in extramarital sexual relationship included: need for variety of sexual experiences (28.2%), lack of emotional relationship with spouse (25.6%), apathy towards spouse at home (15.4%) and inability to have male children (7.7%). The FGD participants were of the view that factors that promote extramarital practices among married men were: irreconcilable differences, sexual discontentment, frequent marital disputes orchestrated by the wife‟s nagging behaviour, covetousness, and wife‟s absence from home for a long period of time and renewal of relationship with pre-marital female friends. Consequences of extramarital sexual relationship listed included risks of transmitting Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) to spouse and reduced financial commitment by husband towards family up-keep. Perceived outcome risks of involvement in extramarital affairs included: divorce (7.3%), STIs (6.2%), sudden death (2.5%) and physical attack by the spouse of concubine (0.8%). Only 16.9% of v respondents who had been having extramarital sexual relationship perceived themselves vulnerable to STIs. Extramarital sexual practices existed among 29.1% respondents who were living with their spouses, 39.8% who were not living with spouses and 82.4% who did not disclosed the whereabouts of their spouses and this was significantly related. Prevalence of extramarital sexual relationship significantly increased with level of education as follows: 21.0% (primary), 28.3% (secondary) and 62.4% (tertiary). The prevalence of extramarital sexual behaviour was relatively high among the respondents with psycho-social needs being the main predisposing factors. Public enlightenment and marital guidance and counseling services are needed to ameliorate this situation. Keywords: Extramarital sexual behaviour, Married men, Sexual discontentment. Word count: 453 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page Dedication ii Certification iii Acknowledgement iv Abstract v Table of contents vii List of Tables xi List of Figures xiii List of Appendices xiv Glossary of Abbreviations xv Definitions of terms xvi CHAPTER ONE 1 1.1 Introduction / Background 1 1.2 Statement of Problem 6 1.3 Justification 7 1.4. Research Questions 8 1.5.1 Goal (Broad Objective) 8 1.5.2 Specific Objectives 8 1.6 Hypotheses 9 CHAPTER TWO 10 2.0 Literature review 10 2.1 Extramarital Sexual behaviour 10 2.1.1 Prevalence of Extramarital Sexual behaviour 10 2.1.2 Sexual behaviour and Human Sexuality 14 2.1.3 Determinants of Sexual behaviours 16 2.1.4 Marriage 17 2.2 Influence of occupation on extramarital sexual behaviour 20 2.3 Socio-cultural factors that influence extramarital sexual behaviour 22 2.3.1 Intrapersonal, interpersonal and contextual factors in extramarital sexual involvement 26 2.4. Extramarital Sex, Secrecy, and the risk of HIV 48 vii 2.5. Various risks or consequences of extramarital sexual relations: 49 2.5.1. Risk of contracting Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) 49 2.5.2. Risk of HIV Infection and AIDS 50 2.5.3. Risk of divorce or „Separation‟ 53 2.5.4. Risk of having Unintended pregnancy or Abortion 53 2.6. Optimistic biases about perception of risk in relation to extramarital sex 54 2.7. Summary of literature review 56 2.8. Conceptual Framework 62 CHAPTER THREE 66 3.0 Methodology 66 3.1 Research design 66 3.2 Scope of study 66 3.3 Independent and Dependent variables 66 3.4 Description of the study site 67 3.5 Study population 69 3.6 Sample size and sampling procedure 69 3.7.1 Instruments for Data collection 75 3.7.2 Data collection procedure 76 3.8. Validity of the research instrument 80 3.9. Reliability of the research instrument 80 3.10 Ethical consideration 80 3.11 Data Management and Analysis 81 3.12 Limitation of the Study 82 CHAPTER FOUR 83 4.0 Results (Both Qualitative and Quantitative findings) 83 4.1 Social-demographic characteristics of respondents 83 4.2 Prevalence of married men that engaged in extramarital sexual relationship 89 4.2.1 Respondents‟ Sexual behaviour and participation in extramarital relationship 91 4.2.2 Respondents‟ reasons for involvement in Extramarital viii sexual behaviour 92 4.3 Influence of Occupation and work environment 95 4.4 Socio-Cultural factors influencing perpetration in extramarital sexual behaviour: 102 4.4.1 Husband and wife living apart as a contributory factor 102 4.4.2 The issue of „Loneliness‟ as a factor 105 4.4.3 Beliefs about Sexuality and Reproductive Health issues 108 4.4.4 Marital disputes / Quarrels as a factor 112 4.4.5 Responses to the advice and example of friends, parents, family relations and significant others 119 4.5 Perceptions of risk involved in Extramarital sexual relationship 122 4.6 Perception of susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs) or HIV outcome risk 127 4.7 Suggested factors by the respondents to curb participation in extramarital sexual relationships 129 4.8 Test of Hypotheses 132 4.9 Summary of findings 141 CHAPTER FIVE 143 5.0 Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations 143 5.1 Prevalence of Married men that engaged in Extramarital Sex 143 5.1.1 Sexual behaviours and extramarital involvement 143 5.1.2 Respondents‟ reasons for engaging in extramarital relationship 144 5.2 Influence of Occupation and work environment 145 5.3 Socio-Cultural factors influencing perpetration in Extramarital Sexual behaviour: 145 5.3.1 Issue of husband and wife living apart 145 5.3 2 Issue of „Loneliness‟ as a factor 146 5.3.3 Relationship with wife/wives, and significant others 146 5.3.4 Beliefs about „Sexuality and reproductive‟ health problems 147 5.3.5 Marital disputes / Quarrels as a factor 147 5.3.6 Responses as to the advice and example of friends, parents, family relations and significant others 148 5.4 Perception of risk(s) associated with Extramarital ix Sexual behaviour 148 5.5 Perception of susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) 150 5.6 Suggested factors to curb participation in Extramarital Sexual relationships by married men 150 5.7 Conclusion 151 5.8 Contribution to Knowledge 151 5.9 Recommendations 152 5.10. Suggestions for further studies 152 REFERENCES 153 APPENDICES: Appendix A: Questionnaire 170 Appendix B: Informed Consent form (Questionnaire) 181 Appendix C: FGD Guide 182 Appendix D: Informed Consent form (FGD Participants) 186 x LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 3.1 Stratification into community type 71 Table 3.2 Detailed information on „stratification‟ into community types 72 Table 3.3 Numbers of communities randomly selected through balloting 73 Table 3.4 Communities with the numbers of married men finally selected by randomization 74 Table 3.5 Sites chosen for FGD at Ibadan North LGA 79 Table 4.1 Social-demographic characteristics of respondents 84 Table 4.2.1 Sexual behaviour of respondents and their participation in extramarital relationship 92 Table 4.2.2 Respondents‟ reasons for their involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour 94 Table 4.3.1 Nature of respondents‟occupation 100 Table 4.3.2 Influence of occupation and work environment on extramarital sexual behaviour 101 Table 4.4.1 Problems associated with husband and wife living apart 105 Table 4.4.2 Responses of the respondents on the issue of „Loneliness‟ 108 Table 4.4.3 Respondents‟cultural perspectives and beliefs on sexuality and reproductive health issues 111 Table 4.4.4 Various marital problems / Disputes between spouses 118 Table 4.4.5 Responses as to the advice and example of friends, parents, family relations and significant others 121 Table 4.5.1 Assessment of sexual practices and perceptions of risk involved in extramarital sexual relationship 126 Table 4.6.1 Respondents‟ perceptions of susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs) or HIV outcome risk 128 Table 4.7.1 Respondents‟suggested factors to curb participation in extramarital sexual relationships by married men 131 Table 4.8.1 Relationships that exist between respondents‟ occupation and participation in extramarital sexual activities 133 Table 4.8.2 Relationships that exist between respondents‟ religion affiliation xi and participation in extramarital sexual activities 134 Table 4.8.3 Relationships that exist between respondents‟ marriage setting and participation in extramarital sexual relationship 135 Table 4.8.4 Relationships that exist between respondents‟ living with spouses and involvement in extramarital sexual affairs 137 Table 4.8.5 Relationships that exist between level of education of respondents and involvement in extramarital sexual relationship 138 Table 4.8.6 Relationships that exist between the level of education of those who got involved in extramarital sex and their perceived vulnerability to STIs 140 Table 4.9.1 Summary of „Predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour‟ 142 xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1 Precede model 65 Figure 2 Map of Ibadan North LGA 69 Figure 3 Histogram showing respondents‟Age group distributions 85 Figure 4 Pie chart showing respondents‟number of spouses 86 Figure 5 Bar chart showing participants‟responses to smoking habit 87 Figure 6 Bar chart showing participants‟responses to alcohol consumption 88 xiii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Questionnaire 170 Appendix B: Informed Consent form (Questionnaire) 181 Appendix C: FGD Guide 182 Appendix D: Informed Consent form (FGD Participants) 186 xiv GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AIDS = Acquired Immune- deficiency syndrome ANC = Ante- Natal Clinic DF = Degree of freedom EMI = Extramarital Involvement EPI = Expanded Programme on Immunization FGD = Focus Group Discussion FMOH = Federal Ministry of Health FRSC = Federal Road Safety Corps HCT = HIV Counseling and Testing HIV = Human Immuno deficiency Virus LGA = Local Government Area LGV = Lymphogranuloma Venereum NDHS = Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey NGO = Non Governmental Organization NGU = Non- Gonococci Urethritis ORT = Oral Rehydration Therapy PRECEDE = Predisposing, Reinforcing and Enabling Cause in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation. STD = Sexually Transmitted Diseases STI = Sexually Transmitted Infection UCH = University College Hospital UNAIDS= Joint United Nation programme on HIV/ AIDS US = United States VD = Venereal Disease WHO = World Health organization ZDHS = Zambia Demographic and Health Survey DEFINITIONS OF TERMS xv 1.) Contraceptive - Any method used in preventing pregnancy e.g. use of a condom, or certain pills. 2.) Epidemiology - The study of an outbreak of disease and how it is spread within a community. 3.) Heredity - Inheritance of traits and certain characters from one‟s parents. 4.) Sexuality - One‟s expression of reproductive and physical make-up, including his or her perception of self as either male or female. 5.) Sexual behaviour - Certain behaviour relating to stimulation and expression of one‟s sexuality ( e.g. touching, kissing, and romancing). 6.) Sexual practices - Habitual sexual behaviour or activities related to sexual expressions that are performed habitually or repeatedly. 7.) Marriage - It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual intercourse, are acknowledged. It can also be defined as a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. 8.) Extramarital Sex - Having sexual intercourse with a person other than one‟s spouse. 9.) Extramarital sexual affairs - Having a kind of romantic friendship and passionate attachment with another lover other than one‟s spouse. 10.) Infidelity - Act of cheating on one‟s spouse or having sexual relationship secretly with another person other than one‟s legitimate spouse. 11.) Intrapersonal factors - Factors that could be traced to a person‟s inner mind especially emotions. 12.) Interpersonal factors - Factors traceable to the association or relationships between two or more people. 13.) Contextual factors - Factors that could be traced to setting or certain circumstances within the environment. 14.) Predisposing factors - Factors that enhance or motivate certain behaviour in a person, such as knowledge, beliefs, one‟s value, and perceived ability. xvi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background information Extramarital sexual affairs are relationships where sexual romantic friendship, passionate attachments occur alongside monogamous relationship (Kelly; Berscheid; Christensen; Harvey; Huston; Levinger; McClintock, and Peterson, 1983). Globally, extramarital involvement occurs with high prevalence among couples in community settings, frequently resulting in considerable distress both to participants and their spouses (Allen; Atkins; Baucom; Snyder; Gordon; and Glass, 2005). Surveys reveal that the vast majority of people in the United States expect sexual monogamy in marriage and disapprove of extramarital involvement (EMI): (Thornton, 1989; Smith, 1994; Treas and Giesen, 2000; Wiederman and Allgeier, 1996) with up to 97.0% of their respondents stating that married persons should not engage in extramarital sexual intercourse (Johnson; Stanley; Glenn; Amato; Nock; Markman, and Dion, 2002). Despite these attitudes, many individuals were still engaging in extramarital activities. Atwood and Schwartz (2002) confirmed that 50%- 60% of married men and 45-55% of married women engage in extramarital sexual behaviour at some time or another during their relationships. But according to Allen et al (2005), approximately 22.0% to 25.0% of men and 11.0% to 15.0% of women indicated that they have engaged in extramarital sexual behaviour. These numbers according to the author, underestimate rates of extramarital involvement because some individual refused to disclose such sensitive information. In another development, Wiederman (1997) in his studies found that up to 34.0% of men and 19.0% of women in older cohorts report engaging in extramarital sexual intercourse at some point in their lives. In any given year, it is estimated that between 1.5% and 4.0% of married individuals will engage in extramarital sexual behaviour (Smith, 1991; Leigh, Temple and Trocki, 1993; Choi, Catania and Dolcini, 1994; Laumann, Gagnon, Michael and Micheals, 1994; Wiederman, 1997 and Allen et al., 2005). 1 Akin-John (2005) had observed that men today are under intense sexual pressure but unfortunately most men are incapable of handling these pressures and many have crumbled and are crumbling under these pressures from society, home, friends, and a host of others. According to him, the world today has become sex saturated. Sex is used to sell and promote every item and product. The literature, video, fashion and movie, world glorify sex to extreme proportions. For instance, at every corner and turn, you see objects and emphasis on sex being flagrantly display, ladies and women dress scantly, exposing some parts of their body. All these bring unbearable pressure on men because man is affected by what he sees (Smith, 2002). Research reveals that one of the most consistent findings across decades of extramarital involvement (EMI) literature and diverse samples is that men are more likely to engage in extramarital involvement or have more extramarital partners than women (Janus and Janus, 1993; Choi, Catania and Dolcini, 1994; Wiggins and Lederer, 1984; Greeley, 1994); Wiederman (1997); Traeen and Stigum (1998); Treas and Giesen (2000); Glass and Wright (1985); Atkins, Baucom and Jacobson (2001); Spanier and Margolis (1983); Cochran, Chamlin, Beeghley and Fenwick (2004) in: Allen et al (2005). In contemporary Nigeria, research evidence has also shown that married men are much more likely than married women to engage in extramarital sexual behaviour. According to the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey report (NDHS, 2008), a much larger proportion of men than women reported having two or more sexual partners. Ten percent of men reported having two or more partners in the 12 months preceding the survey, compared with only 1 percent of women. The proportion engaging in higher-risk sex (i.e., sexual intercourse with a non- marital, non-cohabiting partner) in the past 12 months is also higher among men (23%) than women (10%). For example, in a survey on sexual networking in five locations in southern and northern Nigeria, Uche-Abanihe found that 54 percent of men and 39 percent of women have had extramarital relationships, with 18 percent of men and 11percent of women having done so during the week preceding the survey. He opined that majority of these respondents had not used a condom which is known to offer protection against sexually transmitted HIV (David and George, 1998). To support this statement however, Smith (2002) and Cornwell (2002) explained why it is more acceptable for married men to engage in extramarital activities than married women, they argued that male extramarital sexual practices are situated in socio-economic and cultural contexts, which show how the 2 social organizations of infidelity is located at the intersection of economic inequality, aspirations for modern lifestyles, gender disparities and contradictory moralities. Report of the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2008 revealed that among respondents who had sexual intercourse in the 12 months preceding the survey, 15 percent of men and 1 percent of women had two or more partners, while 33 percent of men and 13 percent of women engaged in higher-risk sexual intercourse during that period. On average, men have a mean of four lifetime sexual partners, compared with a mean of less than two partners for women. It is interesting to note that in Nigeria, the mean number of lifetime sexual partners for men in the South-South is eight, which is twice than the national average. Among men who had sexual intercourse in the 12 months preceding the survey, the percentage of respondents engaging in higher-risk sexual intercourse is highest among those age 15-19 (95 percent), never-married men (97 percent), men living in the urban areas (41 percent), men in the South-South (57 percent), men with secondary education (49 percent), and men in the highest wealth quintile (45 percent). Among women who had sexual intercourse in the 12 months preceding the survey, the proportion who engaged in higher-risk sexual intercourse is highest among those age 15-19 (33 percent), never married women (96 percent), women in urban areas (18 percent), women in South-South (33 percent), women with more than a secondary education (29 percent), and women in the fourth wealth quintile (21 percent). Younger women age 15-24 are twice as likely as women age 40-49 to have had sexual intercourse with two or more sexual partners in the past 12 months. Likewise, younger women age 20-24 who engaged in higher-risk sexual intercourse are more likely to have used a condom with their last high-risk partner. Six percent of never-married women and 7 percent of divorced, separated, or widowed women reported having two or more sexual partners, while less than 1 percent of married women reported two or more sexual partners. For men, the highest percentages with two or more sexual partners are seen among men age 20-24 (18 percent), men who are divorced, separated, or widowed (23 percent), men who live in South-South (25 percent), men with secondary education (18 percent); and men in the highest wealth quintile (18 percent) (NDHS, 2008). 3 Previous research work on marriage, extramarital sexual relations and HIV risk in South- Eastern Nigeria conducted by Smith (2002) revealed that people commonly attribute men‟s more frequent participation in extramarital sexual relationships to some sort of innate male predisposition, that is, men naturally need or want multiple sexual partners. Three sociological factors that facilitate men‟s participation in extramarital sexual relationship were identified by researchers. These are: work-related migration; socio- economic status and involvement in predominately male peer- groups that encourage or reward extramarital sexual relations. On work-related migration, it was revealed that men whose work takes them away from their wives and families are more likely to have extramarital relationships and they frequently attribute their behaviour to the opportunities and hardships produced by these absences (Smith, 2002). Further, extramarital relationships in the context of work-related migration can be easily hidden from wives, family and neighbours in their local communities. Men‟s motivations for keeping extramarital relationships hidden included not only a desire to maintain peace and uphold the appearance of fidelity before their wives, but also a clear concern over their own social reputation. Other sociological factors identified included „Masculinity and Socio-economic statuses where it was observed that most often, a man‟s relationship to his female lover included an expectation that the man provide certain kinds of economic support (Smith, 1994). Extramarital relationship has also been viewed as arenas for the expression of economic and masculine status. The most common form of economically driven extramarital relationships are the so-called “sugar daddy” relationships, wherein married men of means engage in sexual relationship with much younger women with the expectation that the men will provide various forms of economic support in exchange for sexual intercourse. In addition, the economic dominance of the male gender is such that the man‟s sexual relations within the family or his extramarital affairs can endanger the health of his wife or wives without any sanction being imposed on the man (Odebiyi 1992, in: Oyekanmi, 1994a). Male peer group is another significant factor in many men‟s motivations for and behaviours in extramarital relationships. In male-dominated social settings such as social clubs, sports, clubs, sections of the market place and particularly bars and eateries, men especially drivers, commonly talk about their woman friends and sometimes show them off (Smith, 2002 and Allen et al., 2005). 4 Some men who seemed genuinely unhappy in their marriage have occasional extramarital sexual liaisons that appeared to be about little more than sexual intercourse and in rare instances, such men fell in love with their extramarital partners. But bye and large, men tended to see their extramarital relationships as independent of quality of their marriages, and in their minds extramarital relationships posed no threat to a marriage so long as they were kept secret from wives, and as long as men did not waste so many resources on girl- friends or woman-friends that they neglected their obligations to their wives and families (Smith, 2002). Many research works have identified certain groups of people who by virtue of their occupations could be influenced to engage in extramarital sexual activities and run abnormally high risks of being infected with Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) including HIV/AIDS. These groups of people if infected with STD are capable of transmitting the infection to the general population who live around them including their wives and husbands. These groups include truck-drivers, commercial sex workers and female hawkers (Orubuloye, Caldwell and Caldwell, 1993; and Orubuloye, 1995). Anecdotal evidence also has shown that some married men especially those in unique occupations like the police, naval, military and Para-military staff such as prison officers, staff in the immigration department, NITEL staff, Power Holding Company of Nigeria staff and the commuter bus drivers whose jobs require travelling and regular transfer from one part of the country to another have the tendency to involve in extramarital relationship in view of the fact that they often distant away from their wives and most often, pending the time of securing housing facility during official transfer, they tentatively use hotel accommodation, where they come in contact with new opposite sexual partners. The most important risk taking behaviours that are primarily responsible for the rapid spread of HIV throughout the world include frequent change of sexual partners and sexual intercourse with a partner who has multiple partners, drug administration through parenteral route with unsterilised materials like needles and syringes, unscreened blood transfusion, casual sexual intercourse (without the use of condom) with a new partner (Oyekanmi, 1994b). Reports of previous researchers on transmission of STD/HIV continue to emphasize sexual immorality as a primary risk factor but little appetite exists for 5 focusing on the predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour among married men and the risks of extramarital transmission. 1.2 Problem Statement Unprotected extramarital sexual intercourse, according to Schensul, Mekki-Berrada, Natasi, Singh, Bucleson and Bokjo (2006) has become a great concern for those involved in prevention of HIV/AIDS. First, unsafe extramarital sexual liaisons put the involved individual at risk for HIV/STI transmission, Secondly, it puts the other member of the couple at risk as well; and thirdly, extramarital sex often impacts on the quality of the couple relationship, creating difficulties in communication, sexuality, and violence that may further exacerbate extramarital sexual behavior and risk of infection. Research has shown that many young women who are students in urban secondary schools or universities who keep “sugar daddies” seek and represent a kind of modern feminists and their motivations for having a sugar daddy may be largely economic, usually looking for more than money to feed them. For married men who engage in extramarital relationships, some of them do so at any of the opportunity or at least the fantasy of having more exciting, stylish and modern sexual intercourse than what they have with their wives (Smith, 2001). Previous research studies conducted in Nigeria about „Risky sexual practices among commercial drivers operating in Ibadan city‟ revealed that many of them engage in extramarital affairs and are at high risk for HIV infection and transmission and that 69.0% of those that are married among them had had extramarital sexual intercourse at least once (Akintola, Olaseha and Ajuwon, 2002). Again, previous studies on high risk occupations had focused mainly on long – distance truck drivers. Anecdotal and personal experiences however suggest that other men in various occupations and trade, living and transacting businesses with people in big cities like Ibadan do engage in extramarital sexual behaviour and have the potential to facilitate spread of HIV infection. There is a dearth of information on the predisposing factors to extramarital affairs and little is known about sexual risk behaviour and perception of threat of STD/HIV infection among married men in Ibadan North Local Government Area. Those concerns constitute the focus of this study. 6 1.3 Justification for the Study There is a widespread occurrence of extramarital affairs, it cuts across tribes, regions, countries, and continents and has been found to be more common among males than females. It is a public health challenge in which interventions are urgently needed to prevent spread of HIV among married men and their partners. Men‟s extramarital sexual behaviour is the most important factor for introducing HIV/STI into marital life. Husband‟s extramarital sexual behaviour has been seen as closely linked with the marital relationship and marital satisfaction for both husband and wife and male sexual satisfaction within marriage. Married men who report marital sexual dissatisfaction refer to their need for sexual excitement, sexual curiosity, novelty or variety, and sexual enjoyment as justification for extramarital sexual behaviour. From the review of previous works of earlier researchers, it was evident that the nature and prevalence of extramarital sexual behaviour has been dealt with, however, these studies scarcely addressed the factors behind extramarital sexual behaviour. Hence it is important to assess the predisposing factors relating to extramarital sexual relationship and to understand the beliefs and perceptions of married men residing in Ibadan North LGA about various potential risks factors involved, such as: risk of unwanted pregnancy, divorce and broken home, STIs or threat of HIV among others. The findings of this study are expected to serve as baseline information towards re- designing health promotion strategies by health professionals with a view of educating the population concerned about various consequences that may come out of this sexual behaviour. 1.4. Research Questions The study provides answers to the following questions: 1. What is the prevalence of extramarital sexual involvement among sampled married men in Ibadan North LGA? 2. What influence does occupation have on the sexual behaviour of married men in Ibadan North LGA? 3. What are the socio-cultural factors that could influence extramarital sexual behaviour among sampled married men in Ibadan North LGA? 7 4. What are the perceptions of married men in Ibadan North LGA about various risks associated with extramarital sexual behaviour? 5. What are the perceptions of married men in Ibadan North LGA on susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) or HIV that could be acquired through extramarital sexual practices? 1.5.1. Broad Objective The goal of this research study is to explore the predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour among sampled married men within Ibadan North L.G.A. Oyo state, Nigeria. 1.5.2. Specific Objectives The specific objectives are to 1.) Determine the prevalence of extramarital sexual involvement among married men in Ibadan North LGA. 2.) Determine the influence of occupation on the sexual behaviour of married men in Ibadan North LGA. 3.) Analyse socio-cultural factors that could influence perpetration in extramarital sexual behaviour among married men in Ibadan North LGA. 4.) Assess perceptions of married men in Ibadan North LGA about various risks associated with extramarital sexual behaviour. 5.) Assess perceived susceptibility to STI / HIV among married men in Ibadan North LGA. 1.6 Hypotheses: 1.6.1. Hypothesis 1 There is no significant relationship between occupation of the respondents and their involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. 1.6.2. Hypothesis 2 There is no significant relationship between religious practice of the respondents and their involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. 1.6.3. Hypothesis 3 There is no significant relationship between type of marriage union of the respondents (monogamous or polygamous) and their involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. 8 1.6.4. Hypothesis 4 There is no significant relationship between respondents‟ living with their spouses and involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. 1.6.5. Hypothesis 5 There is no significant relationship between educational level of the respondents and their involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. 1.6.6. Hypothesis 6 There is no significant relationship between educational level of those respondents who got involved in extramarital sexual activities and their perceptions of susceptibility to the risk of STIs/HIV infection. 9 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Extramarital Sexual Behaviour Extramarital sexual activity can be defined as sexual intercourse between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse (Merriam-Webster Online dictionary). Extramarital sexual involvement occurs when a married person engages in sexual activity with someone other than the marriage partner (Wikipedia-Dictionary, 2010). It can also be defined as relationships where sexual romantic friendship, passionate attachment occurs alongside monogamous relationship (Kelly; Berscheid; Christensen; Harvey; Huston; Levinger; McClintock, and Peterson, 1983). Extramarital sexual behaviour is a wide spread occurrence and a public health challenge affecting lots of people. Where extramarital sexual relations breach a sexual norm it may also be referred to as “ adultery”, “fornication”, “philandery”, or “infidelity.” Those terms may also carry moral or religious judgement and consequences in civil or religious law (Wikipedia-Dictionary, 2010). Afolabi (2003) had observed that today‟s society do not see anything bad in adultery and fornication, they wrongly give legitimacy to it as a modern way of life. 2.1.1. Prevalence of extramarital sexual behaviour Extramarital sexuality occurred worldwide, it cuts across tribes, regions, countries, and continents. It is a rather complex issue involving ramifications in emotional, social, and moral fields. The problem is a cause for concern in modern times, especially in the West where materialism has for so long been the philosophy of life. Extramarital sexuality has been found to be more common among males than females (Obbo, 1987) in: Bamiwuye; Asa; Fadebiyi and Bisiriyu (2004). Statistically, recent studies reveal that 45-55 percent of married women and 50-60 percent of married men engage in extramarital sexual intercourse at some time or another during their relationships (Atwood and Schwartz, 2002). About 60 percent of men and 40 percent of women will have an affair at some point in some marriage, hence 50 -65 percent of husbands and 45-55 percent of wives become extramaritally involved by the age of 40 (Vaughan, 1998). 10 In Brazil, and other Latin American countries, there is a practice which insists on sexual monogamy for women while tolerating extramarital sexual activities for men. Women who suggest condom use risk being accused of marital infidelity and possible abandonment by their husbands (Diniz, and Araujo, 1994) in: Bamiwuye et al (2004). American biologist Kinsey found in his 1950-era studies that 50% of American males and 26% of females had extramarital sexual intercourse (Kinsey, 1950). Depending on studies, it was estimated that 26-50% of men and 21-38% of women (Choi et al., 1994), or 22.7% of men and 11.6% of women had extramarital sexual intercourse (Wiederman, 1997). Other authors said that between 20% and 25% Americans had sexual intercourse with some others than their spouses (Atkins et al., 2001). Durex‟s Global Sex Survey has found that 44% of adults worldwide have had one-night extramarital sex and 22% have had an affair (Durex, 2005). According to a 2004 United States Survey, 16% of married partners have had extramarital sexual involvement, nearly twice as many men as women, while an additional 30% have fantasized about it (American Sex Survey, 2004). Extramarital sexual activity is common in Urban China. As in year 2000, the prevalence was 3.9% among women, and 20.6% among men, with the components of the men‟s prevalence being 11.8% for non-commercial sex and 8.8% for commercial sex. With or without the commercial sex, the Chinese urban prevalence is higher than U.S. (Zhang; Parish; and Laumann, 2008). In Taiwan, a study on extramarital affairs estimates that one woman in four suspects her husband of having an affair. The study identified men married from 8-16 years as the group at greatest risk, as they are involved in about 24% of all affairs. Not far behind on the risk scales are people 2-4 years into marriage. And 16% of all affairs happen during the first year of marriage. (Infidelity statistics: based on a survey by the National Opinion Research Centre, University of Chicago, 2011). In India society, extramarital affairs are common. Report of the study conducted by Schensul et al (2006) on „Men‟s extramarital sex, marital relationships and sexual risk in Urban poor communities in India revealed that slightly over a fifth of married men interviewed reported that they had ever had extramarital sexual involvement, and slightly over a tenth reported that they had extramarital sexual activity in the preceding year. The great majority of these men reported having extramarital sexual intercourse at least one time with a woman who was not a sex worker, and about one third with a female sex worker. 11 About the incidence of extramarital affairs among tribes of Uganda, it was reported that the bangada men frown upon a man who is faithful to his wife and adultery seems to be a common practice among their women. It was further noted that among the same tribes of Uganda, many children out of wedlock reported from extramarital and concubine relationship (Kisekka, 2003). Also among the Banyakole (in Uganda), it was reported that extramarital sexual relations were allowed between a wife and her in-law when the husband is on labour migration (Middleton, 2003). A survey conducted by David (2006) on „rates of sexual contact among households with linguistic diversity in Uganda‟ revealed that extramarital sexual contact occurred for 29 vs. 16% for married men in multilingual vs. monolingual clusters respectively. And sexual contact was reported by 26 vs. 13% of unmarried women in multilingual vs. monolingual clusters respectively. Anarfi (1993) reported that extramarital relations appeared widespread throughout Lesotho where„Banyantsi‟individuals could easily be identified. The „Banyantsi‟ (marital infidelity) practices was said to be recognised as usual state of affairs only in private rather than in public forum. Folk songs made reference to it. „Banyantsi‟ is reported to be a relationship, which may be maintained on a long-term basis between already married persons and it is different from prostitution. The origin of Banyantsi was claimed to be part of the creation and a feature of all human social life. In Northern Kenya, the culture of the land legally approves extramarital liaisons. Oyekanmi (1994 c) reported that among the Massai cattle rearers of Northern Kenya, for example, a woman is recognised as being married to a particular man within a lineage. However, other man within the lineage can come to her for sex at any time that her husband is away hunting or tending to cattle. In Zambia, extramarital sexual activity is not uncommon. Multivariate data analyses from Zambia Demographic and Health Survey, 2001-2002 which were performed to identify factors associated with men's extramarital sexual behaviour,with a focus on wealth revealed that overall,19% of married men had had extramarital sex in the year prior to the survey; their mean number of partners was 1.3. Of the three proxies for wealth included in the multivariate analyses - education, occupation and household wealth index - none were associated with extramarital sex. Living in Southern and Western Provinces of Zambia was associated with significantly increased odds of extramarital sex (2.3 and 3.5, 12 respectively); older age (0.4), older age at first sex (0.6–0.7) and living in Northern Province (0.4) were associated with significantly decreased odds of sex outside of marriage (ZDHS,2001/ 2002). With an adult prevalence rate of 21.5%, the Zambian AIDS epidemic ranks as one of the most severe in Africa. Some analysts claimed that a high incidence of multiple and concurrent partner sexual networking and infidelity play major roles in diffusing the HIV virus in Zambia (Feldman; O‟Hara; Baboo; Chitalu, and Lu, 1997). In another study from Guinea-Bissau, it was also reported that a man whose partner is breastfeeding could take a lover and if the lover got pregnant as well, she was likely to become a second wife to be set up in a different home. This second home is known as „Cassa dois‟ (Hogsborg and Aaby, 1990). In Ghana, the Akan tradition welcomed marriage between cross cousins and majority of men claimed that they have sexual relationships with girl- friends when their wives are breastfeeding and such relationships can develop into marriage since polyandry is acceptable to the society. It was stated further that Ghananian women often limit the extramarital sexual activities of their husband by cutting down the overall period of abstinence in marriage. To many Ghananian, the idea of sexual partner implies „mpena‟ relationship or concubine. „Mpena‟ is reported to be a regular or permanent relationship which carries with it some financial and other rewards for the females (Anarfi, 1993), in: Bamiwuye et al (2004). Likewise in Nigeria, the Yagba people of the middle belt (Kogi state) have a custom whereby the height of a man showing his friendship to another man is for the former to give his wife to the latter to sleep with her as a mark of the closeness of their relationship (Oyekanmi, 1994 c.). The result of a study of sexual networking among market women in Benin City (Edo state), Nigeria, showed that 26% of market women surveyed by reasercher claimed that they have had sexual intercourse with strangers and 70% of the women have had extramarital relationship in the preceeding years (Omorodion, 1993). In Ekiti District, of the old Ondo State of Nigeria (now Ekiti state), a previous study found that extramarital sexual activities were rampant. It was found that most male‟s extramarital relationships are with younger women whom they described as “friends” or single. For the majority of married women, who indulge in extramarital relationships, married men are 13 often their partners and these men might have been known to them prior to becoming married (Orubuloye, Caldwell and Caldwell, 1991). The researchers also found one third of such relationships to be with relatives by marriage, for example brothers - in - law and sons of co-wives (Bamiwuye et al., 2004). In Osun state Nigeria, correlates of extramarital sexual relation among married men and women in Ile - Ife were investigated. It was reported that levels of extramarital sexual intercourse is higher among females than males and that attitude to money or material compensation for sex correlates significantly with high level of extramarital sexual activities (Bamiwuye et al.,2004). Among Nigerian male police officers, it was found that most of their extramarital sexual partners were single girls particularly students (Akinnawo, 1995). There is growing evidence that marital infidelity is also a problem among Christians. An article in a 1997 issue of Newsweek Magazine noted that various surveys suggest that as many as 30 percent of male Protestant ministers have had sexual relationships with women other than their wives. The journal of Pastoral Care in 1993 reported a survey of Southern Baptist pastors in which 14 percent acknowledged they had engaged in sexual behaviour inappropriate to a minister and that 70 percent had counselled at least one woman who had had intercourse with another minister (Infidelity statistics: based on a survey by the National Opinion Research Centre, University of Chicago, 2011). Recent statistics suggest that globally 40% of women (and that number is increasing) and 60% of men are at one point indulge in extramarital affairs. Putting those numbers together, it is estimated that 80% of the marriages will have one spouse at one point or another involved in marital infidelity (Huizenga, 2005). 2.1.2 Sexual Behaviour and Human Sexuality Human sexual activities or human sexual behaviour refers to the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality. Sexual behaviours are actions (touching, kissing and other stimulation of the body) related to the expression of one‟s sexuality, while activities related to sexual expression that are performed habitually or repeatedly can be referred to as „sexual practices‟. Sexual behaviours and practices therefore are what people „do‟ sexually with each other or with themselves (Engender Health, 2001). 14 Sexual behaviour is also a form of physical intimacy that may be directed to reproduction (one possible goal of sexual intercourse), spiritual transcendence and or to the enjoyment of any activity involving sexual gratification (Kelly et al., 1983). Human sexual behaviour is therefore a very basic aspect of human life which is influenced by social, economic and cultural factors (Tope -Ajayi, 2005). Sexuality is defined as „the total expression of who you are as human beings; male or female as an individual. It is shaped by our values, attitudes, behaviours, physical appearance, beliefs, emotions, personality, likes and dislikes and spiritual selves, as well as all the ways in which we have been socialized. Sexuality begins before birth and lasts a lifetime and it is influenced by ethical, spiritual, cultural and moral factors. It involves giving and receiving sexual pleasure, as well as enabling reproduction. Sexuality is therefore a total sensory experience involving the whole mind and body–not just the genitals. It is a central aspect of being human throughout life and encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviour, practices, roles and relationships (Engender Health, 2001). According to the report of a Technical Consultation on Sexual Health, Geneva, World Health Organisation, 2005, it was stated that while sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed. Sexuality is therefore influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, ethical, legal, historical, religious and spiritual factors (Engender Health, 2001). People engage in a variety of sexual acts from time to time, and for a wide variety of reasons. Sexual activity normally results in sexual arousal and physiological changes in the aroused person, some of which are pronounced while others are more subtle. Sexual activity also includes conduct and activities which are intended to arouse the sexual interest of another, such as strategies to find or attract partners (mating and display behaviour), and personal interactions between individuals, such as flirting and foreplay (Kelly et al., 1983). 2.1.3. Determinants of Sexual Behaviours Many people believe that sexual orientation may be determined before birth, though orientation may also be influenced by social factors. It should be noted that a person‟s sexual practices do not necessarily indicate sexual orientation or sexual identity. For 15 example, one person may practice sexual orientation for survival, money, or power over another individual, or a person may practice sexual behaviour that conform to societal norms, even if the practice is not consistent with that person‟s sexual orientation. Society determines what sexual information and behaviours are legally permitted or considered appropriate on the basis of tradition, customs, religion, values and beliefs; the history and experience of the culture; economic and political conditions (Engender Health, 2001). Norms and Values Every culture has norms related to sex and sexuality. These norms are reflected in gender roles, relationships, marriage, partnerships, friendships and family. Societal norms often determine sexual practices, marriage customs, punishment for unapproved sexual behaviours, and attitudes toward prostitution, homosexuality, contraception, sexual taboos and sexuality education. All societies have values that guide private and public behaviour. We have formal values and informal values (Engender Health, 2001). “Values” can be described as things we hold at high esteem. It can also be defined as quality of being useful or desirable. Formal values – are values defined by religious, governments and other official entities shaping a society‟s laws. Informal values – are those reflecting a person‟s day- to- day behaviour and these may not be consistent with the culture‟s formal values. For example, while a society may publicly prohibit sexual activity outside of marriage, many people may have sexual intercourse with a person who is not their spouse. In some cultures, it may be understood informally that this is common, even acceptable while in other cultures, norms and even laws based on these norms, may make these behaviours acceptable for one sex and not the other. For example, in some cultures it is acceptable for men to have multiple sexual partners or have sexual intercourse with a person who is not their spouse, whereas a woman in the same culture who has sexual relations outside of marriage may be stigmatized, punished or socially ostracized - even if the woman has been raped (Engender Health, 2001). i.) Religious norms and values: Religion shapes sexual values with sacred law that articulates a range of acceptable sexual behaviours and practices (whom an individual can marry, the types of sexual expression allowed, the use of contraception etc). In many countries sacred laws continue to have a powerful impact on current secular law. For example, where extramarital sexual relations breach a sexual norm it may also be referred 16 to as “adultery”, “fornication”, “philandery”, or “infidelity” (Wikipaedia-Dictionary, 2010). In the traditional English common law, adultery was a felony. Although the legal definition of adultery differs in nearly every legal system, the common theme is sexual relations outside of marriage, in one form or another. For example, New York defines an adulterer as “a person who engages in sexual intercourse with another person at a time when he has a living spouse, or the other person has a living spouse” (New York Penal Law Section 255.17). Minnesota law provides: "when a married woman has sexual intercourse with a man other than her husband, whether married or not, both are guilty of adultery" (Minnesota Statue Section 609.36). Also there are current laws in some countries against oral and anal sex practices that were first outlawed in those countries by religious law in the middle Ages (Wikipaedia- Dictionary 2010). ii.) Economics, Laws and Politics: Economics shape sexual values and become part of a culture‟s tradition. Although some laws are designed to protect people against sexual abuse (e.g. rape, paedophilia, incest). Some laws also regulate sexual conduct between consenting adults and may favour one gender or sexual orientation over another [Engender Health 2001]. 2.1.4 Marriage Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage so as to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures (Bell, 1997). According to Sing (1922), Marriage is the union of two different surnames, in friendship and in love, in order to continue the posterity of the former sages, and to furnish those who shall preside at the sacrifices to heaven and earth, at those in the ancestral temple, and at those at the altars to the spirits of the land and grain. In his book The History of Human Marriage (1921), Westermarck defined marriage as "a more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring" (Westermarck, 1921). In The Future of Marriage in Western Civilization (1936), he rejected his earlier definition, instead provisionally defining marriage as "a relation of one or more men to one or more women that is recognized by custom or law" (Westermarck, 1936). The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries (1951) defined marriage as "a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners” (Royal Anthropological Institute, 1951). 17 In recognition of a practice by the Nuer of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances, Gough suggested modifying the definition to "a woman and one or more other persons" (Gough,1959). Leach criticized Gough's definition for being too restrictive in terms of recognized legitimate offspring and suggested that marriage be viewed in terms of the different types of rights it serves to establish. Leach expanded the definition and proposed that "Marriage is a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons, which provides that a child born to the woman under circumsta nces not prohibited by the rules of the relationship, is accorded full birth-status rights common to normal members of his society or social stratum" (Leach,1955). Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures. He offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures (Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition, "marriage"). Bell also criticized the legitimacy-based definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy, arguing that in societies where illegitimacy means only that the mother is unmarried and has no other legal implications, a legitimacy- based definition of marriage is circular. He proposed defining marriage in terms of sexual access rights and describes marriage as "a relationship between one or more men (male or female) in severalty to one or more women that provides those men with a demand-right of sexual access within a domestic group and identifies women who bear the obligation of yielding to the demands of those specific men" (Bell, 1997). In support of the above, Home Antiques Digest (2010), however, defined marriage as “a relation of one or more men to one or more women that is recognised by custom or law, and involves certain rights and duties both in the case of the parties entering the union and in the case of the children born of it.” In another view, Marriage has been looked at as an institution ordained by God right from the creation of the first man. It is described as a life time contract between the two sexual partners based on mutual agreements, to be a companion and help mate for each other (Adeniran, 2006). Marriage always implies the right of sexual intercourse which is allowable in the case of husband and wife and the society regard it as their duty to gratify in some measure the other partner‟s desire. The sexual side of marriage is nearly always combined with the living together of husband and wife (Home Antiques Digest, 2010). Marriage means entering into matrimonial relations with Holy purpose – the husband to obtain the pure affections of a woman‟s heart, the wife 18 to soften and improve her husband‟s character and give it completeness – fulfill God purpose for them (Ellen, 2005). In summary, the definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is usually an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged. Marriage (or wedlock) is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. Such a union, often formalized via a wedding ceremony, may also be called “matrimony”. Many cultures limit marriage to two persons of the opposite sex, but some allow forms of polygamous marriage, and some recognize same sex marriage. In some conservative cultures, marriage is recommended or compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity (Kelly et al., 1983). People marry for many reasons, including one or more of the following: legal, social, libidinal, emotional, economic, spiritual, and religious. These might include arranged marriages, family obligations, the legal establishment of a nuclear family unit, the legal protection of children and public declaration of commitment (Krier; Gregory; Michael and Jesse, 2006; and Gallagher, 2002). Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, a religious authority, a tribal group local community or peers. It is often viewed as a contract. Civil marriage is the legal concept of marriage as a governmental institution irrespective of religious affiliation, in accordance with marriage laws of the jurisdiction (Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition, "marriage"). The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved. Some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment (Kelly et al., 1983). Research indicates that long before written history, primitive clans and tribes were living within small, interdependent structures. Many of these groups had some type of ceremony marking the forming of a union or marriage between two opposite sex partners. It appears that since we began living in structured social groups, humans have adhered to the believe that formal union of two people work best for maintaining a healthy, functioning society. Within different societies, independent unions of two people were considered the best way to secure food and shelter, defend against outside aggressors, and raise offspring. The supreme purpose of marriage according to African people is to bear children, to build a family, to extend life, and to hand down the living torch of human existence (Mbiti, 2003). 19 Through marriage and child bearing, the parents are remembered by their children when they die. Marriage therefore, is intimately linked up with the religious beliefs about the continuation of life beyond death. For that reason, a marriage becomes fully so only when one or more children come out of a marriage. It is a very tragic thing when no children come out of a marriage. Hence people do not consider such relationship to be truly a marriage, and other arrangements are made to obtain children in the family (Mbiti, 2003). Layton- Tholl has observed that as societies evolved, the marriage bond took on increased significance within each culture. He opined that one of the most universal aspects of the marriage union to be perpetuated cross - culturally was monogamy. He however larmented that, despite this proclivity towards marriage, and insistence that the marriage partners remain monogamous, yet, human beings have been engaging in non-monogamous activities throughout history (Layton- Tholl, 1998). 2.2 Influence of occupation on extramarital sexual behaviour Occupation is defined as the job by which somebody earns a living (Microsoft encartal dictionary, 2009). Many atimes, employment opportunity or type of occupation may comprise an opportunity variable by exposing an individual to alternative sex partners. Allen, (2001); Glass, (2003); Wiggins and Lederer, (1984) opined that 46 to 62 % of involved partners reported that they met their extramarital partners at work. A study undertaken among 395 intra-city commercial bus drivers, conductors, and motor park attendants in a sub-urban community in Lagos, Nigeria revealed that the men were found to have a strongly woven network for extramarital sexual relationships. In addition, their sexual network included, apart from their wives and regular partners, commercial sex workers, young female hawkers, school girls, and market women within and outside motorparks. More than two thirds (74.3%) of the men had multiple sex partners and many of them had had STD at one time or another (Ekanem; Afolabi; Nuga; and Adebajo, 2005). In another development, a research study conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria about „Risky sexual practices among commercial drivers operating in Ibadan city‟ by Akintola; Olaseha, and Ajuwon, (2002) revealed that many of them engage in extramarital affairs, and that 69.0% of those that were married among them had had extramarital sex at least once. Wardlow, (2007) had observed that labour migration put some married men in social contexts that encourage infidelity. According to him, many men do not view sexual fidelity as necessary for achieving a happy marriage, but they view drinking and “looking 20 for women” as important for male friendship. Nwokoji and Ajuwon (2004) in their studies on „Knowledge of AIDS and HIV risk- related sexual behaviour among Nigerian Naval personnel‟reported that the majority (88.1%) of their respondents had had lifetime multiple partners ranging from 1- 40 with a mean of 5.1. Also 32.5% of male respondents had had sexual contact with a female sex worker, 19.9% did so during the six months preceding the survey. Forty-one percent of those with sexual contact with a female sex worker did not use a condom during the most recent sexual encounter with these women and that naval personnel who have been transferred abroad reported significantly more risky sexual behaviours than those at home. Akinnawo (1995) in: Bamiwuye et al (2004) reported that among the male police officers, it was found that most of their extramarital sexual partners were single girls, particularly students. Also, Zhang; Parish, and Laumann, (2008) in their study on „Socio-cultural status and extramarital sex among men in China‟ had observed that “occupation” also has positive effects on extramarital sexual involvement especially in China. According to them, in overall, party membership and father‟s occupation join income and occupation in exerting positive influences on extramarital sex, except for a small percentage of male population, the college – educated. Data on currently married and cohabiting men aged 15 to 64 years from the 2003 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey was used by Oyediran, Isiugo-Abanihe, Feyisetan, Bamikole, and Ishola to examine the prevalence of and factors associated with extramarital sex. The result revealed that 16% of currently married and cohabiting men aged 15 to 64 years in Nigeria engaged in extramarital sex in the 12 months preceding the survey and had an average of 1.82 partners. The results also show statistically significant association between extramarital sex and ethnicity, religion, age, age at sexual debut, education, occupation, and place of residence (Oyediran, Isiugo-Abanihe, Feyisetan, Bamikole, and Ishola, 2010). 2.3 Socio-cultural factors that influence extramarital sexual behaviour The reasons for marital infidelity are as many and as varied as the people involved. According to Brown (2007), the reasons for extramarital affairs are as follows: i.) Conflict avoidance. (ii.) Sexual addiction of one or both spouses. (iii.) Split self and means of exiting from an unhappy marriage. (iv.) A result of experiencing abnormal stress over a normal lifestyle change. (v.) Loss or lack of affection between the marriage partners. (vi.) The feelings of sexual entitlement based on gender or status. Walsh (2006) in his own 21 contribution highlighted the various reasons why some people engage in extramarital affairs thus: 1. Dissatisfaction with the marital relationship: Some people cannot be satisfied with a single partner and might resort to having sexual relationships with additional partners outside wedlock. At times, this symptom of our inability to find satisfaction in our long term relationships may be because of the expectations we placed on them in the first place, then any biological drive towards multiple sexual partners. 2. Result of disappointments in the current relationship: For example, lack of interest in sexual intercourse of the spouse might lead the other partner to take the estranged path. That is inability of one spouse to be satisfied with sexual inercourse. Maybe one of the spouse is very sexually active than the other. If the other spouse feels that her partner (husband) is not all that sexually active and feel disappointed, she might get out finding satisfaction elsewhere. 3. Excitement that marks the beginning of a relationship: Some people like to fall in love (having sexual intercourse) over and over again just for the excitement that marks the beginning of a relationship. So once the marriage seems to lose its lustre, they try to have an affair just to revive the heat of excitement. 4. An extramarital affair might be for revenge: If one of the couple does something disagreeable, they might indulge in adultery to avenge their spouse. 5. To affirm personal desirability: Another form of sexual infidelity serves the purpose of affirming personal desirability. 6. Lack of intimacy in the marriage: Some extramarital affairs are reactivity to a perceived lack of intimacy in the marriage. 7. Websites influences: A lot of websites encourage infidelity by providing common meeting grounds for married people who wish to have affairs. In addition to the above, other causes of extramarital affairs are identified below: (1.) Engaging in alcohol or being drug addicts (2.) Growing apart – people engage in extramarital affairs possibly as a result of changes in our life circumstances due to growth and maturity (3.) The loss of the high level of passion and desire that existed in the beginning of the relationship may result in boredom or develop into a feeling of apathy towards the partner (4.) Financial problems (5.) Inability of the couple to have a child (6.) New job placement and labour migration (7.) The death of a family member, either husband or wife, and (8.) Need for sexual variety (Layton-Tholl, 1998). 22 Layton-Tholl (1998) had observed that extramarital affairs based solidly on desire for new sexual partners are a very small percentage of the total numbers of affairs. He re-affirmed that majority of the affairs are based on „emotional needs‟ not being met within the marital relationship, and not sexually motivated reasons. Therefore, it appears that the allure of extramarital affairs is not new sexual experiences, nor are they due to any biological inability to remain monogamous, but rather what drives many individuals to become involved in extramarital affairs is a lack of emotional fulfilment within the existing relationship. The indication is that the desire for a new sexual experience is not the initial motives for looking outside the marriage, but it rather comes after the breakdown of the emotional relationship. One can then deduce that the eroding of the interpersonal relationship, including a loss of passion, lack of intimacy and loss of emotional and sexual satisfaction, makes the dissatisfying partner to look for a new lover to fulfil his or her needs. Another reason identified through research is the issue of diminished “feelings” for other partner which led the partner to become involved in extramarital sexual relationship. Specifically, many people report feelings unappreciated, ignored, sexually frustrated and no longer desirable to their partners but almost all cases especially the married member of an affair has reported that they feel “more alive”, “more sexually appealing” and “more appreciated” by their lover than by their spouses (Layton -Tholl, 1999). Every society imposes rules on its members, including rules that restrict and specify when and with whom sexual intercourse is allowed. All societies restrict sexual relations between some members. At the very minimum, and almost everywhere, sexual relations with very close relatives (such as between parent and child or between siblings) are restricted. And once married, people are generally expected to live up to whatever rules their society has laid out- although choosing a sex partner is also not always tantamount to choosing a spouse (Wardlow,2007). Some people may marry in order to gain citizenship of a certain country, in which case the marriage will often remain sexless. But either way, once married, there are specific rules and conventions to live by. These rules are sometimes based on a double standard, where 23 women are expected to be sexually faithful to their husbands, while these husbands are allowed extramarital relations. Ironically, women might, instead of criticizing the double standard, excuse their husband's wanderings (Wardlow, 2007). A good example of this behaviour was that manifested by Mrs. Hillary Clinton who publicly excused her husband's affair but applied blame to the woman whom her husband had had extramarital sexual affair with. Or deceived women might blame the other woman instead of the husband. In those cases, the other woman is held responsible while the man's behaviour is interpreted as the result of his inability to control his sexual urges. This happens in parts of Greece as well as in some gangs, where a girl who sleeps with the boyfriend of another girl in the gang is a more likely recipient of the betrayed girl's fury than the boyfriend. Joan Rivers had summed it up: "A man can sleep around,no questions asked, but if a woman makes nineteen or twenty mistakes she's a tramp" – (Wever-Rabehl, 2006). Wardlow (2007) had observed that the social organisation of extramarital sexuality is shaped by aspirations for modern amenities and middle - class consumption, the influence of urban fashions, and changing expectations of sexuality. He stressed that social, and cultural factors that propel and structure men‟s extramarital sexuality are present to some extent in all societies. And that men‟s extramarital sexuality varies widely in terms of frequency, pattern, cultural meaning and personal significance. Socio - economic contexts structure both opportunities and disincentives for men‟s extramarital liaisons; thus whether and how often a married man engages in extramarital sexual relations depend on a wide range of material and ideological factors, including geographical opportunity, the degree of stigma or prestige conferred by extramarital liaisons, male peer group, patterns of socializing and so on. An important, yet rarely acknowledged factor that potentially influences men‟s extramarital sexuality is the social construction of marriage, which is the emotional, cultural and economic meaning of conjugality in a society. According to him, the ethnographic research shows that husbands‟ and wives‟ economic and emotional roles and expectations of each other vary culturally and are influenced by other factors, such as: a society‟s economic organisation, political organisation, religion, and gender relations and a couple‟s socio - economic status. 24 Another factor to be considered is the traditional proscription against sexual intercourse for women during pregnancy, and particularly in the post-partum period as usually the case especially in south-western Nigeria. Lawoyin and Larsen (2002) opined that this cultural practice leaves many men without sexual access to their wives for extended periods of time. According to them, this practice raises the question whether men abstain or seek other sexual partners. In another view, extramarital sexual activity has been explained by cultural, economic and psychological factors. According to Adegbola and Babalola (1999), in spite of the multiplicity of cultural, economic and psychological explanations, it is generally believed that marital disharmony can either encourage or be the consequence of sexual unfaithfulness. Where the marital relationship is less than intimate, a dissatisfied and suspicious partner may be tempted into an extramarital sexual relationship in retaliation against the offending partner. Whether or not an offended partner contracts an extramarital sexual relationship may depend on whether the suspicion of infidelity by the other partner has been confirmed, and perhaps on whether the marital disharmony also entails the denial of sexual relations. However, „ABC‟ approaches to HIV/AIDS prevention (A = promoting sexual abstinence before marriage, B = being faithful within marriage, C = using condoms with sexual partners when the first two behaviours are not possible) are premised on a unitary and highly idealized western construction of the marital relationship. The social science literature often refers to this as companionate marriage, where marriage is expected to be a person‟s primary source of emotional gratification and marital sexual fidelity is a key symbol of this intense emotional bond. Thus, engaging in extramarital sexual relations (even with a condom) forsakes or violates this bond. The literature on ABC approaches to HIV/AIDS prevention rarely acknowledges that the marital relationship may not be universally conceptualized as companionate in accordance with an idealized western model or that there may be competing economic and ideological pressure on men that minimize the value and practicability of marital fidelity (Shelton, Halperin, Nantulya, Potts, Galye, and Holmes, 2004). Conclusively, research findings according to Wardlow (2007) indicate that there are more socio-economic structures that promote, enable, and normalise men‟s extramarital sexuality and which invariably increase their wives‟ HIV risk than constrain or discouraging it. 25 2.3.1. Intrapersonal, interpersonal and contextual factors in extramarital sexual involvement Specific findings regarding rates of extramarital involvement vary in part as a function of the manner in which such involvement is operationalized. Most survey research uses extramarital sexual intercourse as the target variable, but some researchers have included a broader continuum of involvement such as assessing all types of physical involvement (not just intercourse). Moreover, there is emerging empirical interest in “emotional infidelity” in which emotional intimacy and sexual attraction to another person are combined with secrecy from the spouse (Glass and Wright, 1988). A growing literature demonstrates that individuals do consider a broader range of involvement, including sexualized internet relationships, to constitute “infidelity” (Whitty, 2003). Researchers who assess a continuum of extramarital sexual behaviours (not just intercourse) or who have included emotional involvement typically find a significant number of additional individuals who have engaged in some form of sexual or romantic behaviour outside of marriage but have not had extramarital sexual intercourse (Buunk, 1980; Glass and Wright, 1985; Allen et al., 2005). An organizational system was adopted by Allen et al., (2005). It is an application of theory related to extramarital involvement (EMI) which was produced from a review of thories, such including: evolutionary psychology theory (Gangestad and Thornhill, 1997; Buss, 2000; Wright, 1994); social constructionist theory including models of gender and cultural socialization models (Atwood and Seifer, 1997; Lawes, 1999; Lusterman, 1997; Penn, Hernandez, and Bermudez, 1997); investment models (Drigotas, Safstrom, and Gentilia, 1999); attachment theory (Allen and Baucom, 2004; Bogaert and Sadava, 2002); differentiation theory (Schnarch, 1991) and equity theory (Walster,Traupmann, and Walster,1978). Some of these theories focus predominantly on individual factors, others focus on relationship factors, and some focus on social contextual factors. On this premise, and in other to overview what is known about extramarital activities across domains, Allen et al (2005) presented an organizational framework for this overview and the hypothetical examples of variables within the framework, taking into consideration intrapersonal, interpersonal and contextual factors in engaging in and responding to extramarital involvement. Same are discussed under these two domains - Temporal and Source dimension respectively. 26 Temporal Dimension In the organisational framework, variables related to extramarital involvement (EMI) are organized along a temporal dimension comprising six stages to reflect the fact that engaging in and responding to marital sexual involvement is a process (Atwater, 1979; Humphrey, 1983; Meyerling and Epling- Mc Wherter, 1986; Brown, 1991; Atwood and Seifer, 1997; Olsson, Russell, Higgins-Kessler, Miller, 2002; Spanier and Margolis, 1983) – in: Allen et al (2005). The six stages are: Predisposing factors, precipitating factors, approach factors, maintenance factors, disclosure or discovery factors, and response factors. Source Dimension In order to understand the basis of this organisational framework (prepared by Allen et al., 2005), it is important to look at some variables which can be reffered to as the source, and factors through which extramarital involvement has come into being or from which it has been obtained. They are: Involved partner, Spouse (spousal factors), Marriage (marital factors), and Contextual factors. The angle or the dimension through which we are looking at these factors is what is been referred to as the „source dimension‟ Allen et al (2005), had observed that this source dimension is similar to what has been proposed in other research analysis of close relationships, such as Kelley; Berscheid; Christensen; Harvey; Huston; Levinger; McClintock, and Peterson‟s (1983) or Huston‟s (2000)‟s analysis of relationship events in terms of personal, relational and environmental factors. At any given stage of development, extramarital involvement may be influenced by these factors operating either separately or interactively. In order to capture the multi- determined and development nature of “extramarital involvement”, it is considered important to discus the factors within temporal dimension one by one with those various domains that are organized under a source dimension. . 2.3.1. (A.) Predisposing factors Predisposing factors are called „behavioural antecedents‟ that provide motivation for the behaviour. It includes knowledge, beliefs, values, and perceived self-efficiency. In this study, predisposing factors are presumed to exist prior to the development of extramarital involvement and they set the stage by increasing or decreasing the a priori likelihood of 27 extramarital involvement occurring (Brown, 1991 and Allen et al., 2005). Such factors also have been conceptualized as „before‟ or „during‟ marriage variables (Spanier and Margolis, 1983) or as factors comprising a “Pre involvement” phase (Atwater, 1979; Meyerling and Epling- Mc Wherter, 1986). (i.) Involved Partner predisposing factors: These factors includes factors mainly attributable to the individual engaging in extramarital involvement and these variables can be demographic e.g. Age, Gender, Ethnicity or Family history; Psychological, Static (trait) or transitory (state). These same factors may be markers for processes that could be modified to reduce the risk of extramarital involvement: 1.) Gender: One of the most consistent finding across decades of extramarital involvement literature and diverse samples is that men are more likely to engage in extramarital sexual intercourse or have more extramarital partners than women (Atkins, Baucom, and Jacobson, 2001; Blumstein and Schwartz, 1983; Buunk, 1980; Choi et al., 1994) in: Allen et al (2005). Moreover, men express more desire to have extramarital involvement, more willingness to engage in extramarital sex, more active seeking of an extramarital partner and less disapproval of extramarital involvement relative to women (Allen, 2001; Buunk and Bakker, 1995; Johnson, 1970; Oliver and Hyde, 1993; Prins, Buunk and Van Yperen, 1993; Smith, 1994), in contrast, Saunders and Edwards (1984); Waite and Joyner (2001) observed that men are generally disapproving of extramarital involvement, hence several authors have speculated about this gender difference. For example, Lusterman (1997) and Allen et al (2005) described societal condoning of extramarital involvement by men, cultural depictions of women as sexual objects, men‟s vulnerability to seeking power and conquest through sexual intercourse, and pressures on men to focus on career success, which may lead them to neglect their own feelings in marriage until they reach a point of crisis. 2.) Age: The relation of age to extramarital involvement has been examined by previous researchers by assessing the relations between „age and both life time‟ prevalence of extramarital involvement and the incidence of extramarital sex in the prior year. Allen et al (2005) observed that although, there are some inconsistencies in the relation between age and lifetime prevalence of extramarital involvement across studies, recent large representative surveys have typically found a curvilinear association in which cumulative 28 prevalence rates generally increase with age up to older cohorts at which point cumulative prevalence rates decline (Atkins et al., 2001; Wiederman, 1997). Such findings according to Allen et al (2005) reflect both an extended time in which extramarital involvement can take place and a cohort effect in which older groups report less lifetime extramarital involvement. Similarly other research works had observed and indicated that younger cohorts tend to report higher rates of extramarital sexual involvement (Choi et al., 1994; Leigh et al., 1993; Treas and Giesen, 2000). The relation between age and incidence may differ by gender, as some research has found a negative relation between age and extramarital sexual involvement in the prior year for women only (Buunk, 1980). Consistent with this pattern of findings therefore, Atkins, Yi; Baucom, and Christensen (2006) found in a marital therapy sample that men involved in extramarital sexual involvement were significantly older than women involved in extramarital sexual involvement. 3.) Education: Although higher education is associated with more accepting attitude about extramarital involvement (Smith, 1994), the relation between education and actual extramarital involvement is less clear. Most research has revealed a slight positive relation between education and history of extramarital involvement (Amato and Rogers, 1997; Atkins et al., 2001; Buunk, 1980; Leigh et al., 1993; Traeen and Stigum, 1998) and between education and frequency of extramarital involvement for men (Janus and Janus, 1993). However, other research has not found a positive relation (Edwards and Booth, 1976; Greeley, 1994; Treas and Giesen, 2000) and some research has found higher rates of extramarital involvement among those with less than high school levels of education (Choi et al., 1994; and Smith, 1991). A possible clarification is however noted by Treas and Giesen (2000) who found somewhat greater likelihood of extramarital involvement at the extreme of the education distribution. Researchers using multivariable techniques have found important moderators of the relations between education and extramarital involvement. Atkins et al (2001) found that the positive relation between education and extramarital sexual involvement held only for those who had a history of divorce. Choi et al (1994) found that having less education was a significant risk factor for African- American men only, and Traeen and Stigum (1998) found that higher education predicted more extramarital involvement only in older cohorts. The relation between education and extramarital involvement may vary and be influenced by other factors. 29 4.) Religion: - This factor has also been examined as a possible factor related to extramarital involvement. According to Allen et al (2005) there is no evidence or a differential prevalence of extramarital involvement among different religious denominations (Edwards and Booth, 1976; Forste and Tanfer, 1996; Greeley, 1994), although those who endorse no religious affiliation do report higher rates of extramarital involvement (Greeley, 1994). Frequency of attending religious services and the self- reported religiosity of the respondents appear negatively related to both permissive attitudes regarding extramarital involvement (Cochran and Breeghly, 1991, Smith, 1994; Kraaykamp, 2002) and actual history of engaging in extramarital involvement (Amato and Rogers 1997; Atkins et al., 2001; Bunnk, 1980; Choi et al., 1994; Janus and Janus, 1993; Lawson and Samson, 1988). A minority of studies, according to Allen et al (2005) have found no significant relation between religious participation and lifetime prevalence of extramarital involvement (Blumstein and Schwartz, 1983; Spanier and Margolis, 1983), but Spanier and Margolis did find that the less religious the respondent, the earlier in the marriage he or she began the extramarital involvement. Controlling for other variables (e.g. permissive attitudes towards EMI) may affect the relation between religious attendance and extramarital involvement (Treas and Giesen, 2000). In another vein, Atkins et al (2001) found an interaction between religion and marital satisfaction and posited that religious participation seemed to lower the risk of extramarital involvement particularly for those in very happy marriages; by contrast, those participants in “pretty happy” or “not too happy” marriages showed little or no effect of religious participation on their rates of extramarital involvement. Allen et al (2005) noted that the more religious a person is, the lower the rate of extramarital involvement; however, the protective effects of religious involvement may depend on the levels of other salient variables such as marital satisfaction. 5.) Political orientation: Researchers‟ findings regarding the relation between political orientation and extramarital involvement are inconsistent but overall suggest that more conservative individuals report less extramarital involvement (Bell, Turner, and Rosen, 1975; Cochran et al., 2004). However, Janus and Janus (1993), according to Allen et a (2005) who presented data for only the extreme ends of the political continuum found that those with more extreme political leanings in either direction had higher rates of extramarital involvement relative to the midpoint. 30 6.) Race: “Race” has been included as a demographic factor in several studies of extramarital involvement (EMI) and has typically indicated that African - Americans and Hispanic- Americans report higher rates of extramarital sex relative to whites (Amato and Rogers ,1997; Cochran et al., 2004; Dolcini; Catania; Coates; Stall; Hudes; Gagnon, and Pollack, 1993); Greeley, 1994); Leigh et al., 1993; Smith, 1991; Treas and Giesen, 2000; and Wiederman, 1997). In addition, it was noted that African - American often have more approving attitudes toward extramarital sex (Smith, 1994). Penn, Hernandez, and Bermudez (1997) posited many forces that may theoretically impact rates of extramarital involvement (EMI) in different ethnic groups; for example, African-American rates of extramarital involvement (EMI) may be affected by social forces such as the legacy of slavery, racism, economic disadvantage, and imbalanced gender ratios (i.e.fewer eligible African-American men per African-American women) which may contribute lower commitment among African-American men (Guttentag and Secord, 1983). 7.) History of divorce or separation: - Most survey research has found that rates of extramarital involvement are higher for those who have a history of divorce or separation (Atkins et al., 2001; Greeley, 1994; Hunt, 1976; Janus and Janus, 1993; Laumann, Gagnon, Michael and Michaels, 1994 and Wiederman, 1997). Allen et al (2005) observed that this may be largely attributable to extramarital involvement leading to a prior divorce or increased sexual activity with other partners during a marital separation. Amato and Rogers (1997) did find that spouses in marriages which were remarriages for one or both partners reported a 48% higher (but non significant) likelihood of reporting extramarital involvement (EMI) as a problem in the current marriage and Smith (1994) found that divorced or separated persons had more permissive attitudes toward EMI. In terms of a family history of divorce, Amato and Rogers (1997) found that if the wife parents had divorced, there was a significant increase in citing EMI as a marital problem. The clinical literature posits an increased risk of EMI for persons whose parents engaged in EMI (Brown, 1991; Pittman, 1989) and one small qualitative study suggested similar patterns of extramarital involvement across generations (Stabb, Ragsdale, Bess, and Weiner, 2000). 8.) Pre marital sexual history: An active premarital sexual history has been evaluated as a possible risk factor for extramarital sexual involvement. Kinsey, Pomeroy, Martin, and Gebhard (1953) found that women who had not engaged in premarital sex reported a lower incidence of extramarital involvement (EMI). 31 9.) Permissive attitudes: - Individual attitudes and orientations toward relationships also have been evaluated as interpersonal variable that may relate to a greater risk of engaging in extramarital involvement. Specific variables that have been assessed include the degree to which sexual intercourse and love are considered associated, emotional investment in a relationship, emotional dependency on the spouse, need for (non sexual) relational variety and intimacy with others (outside of marriage), and adult romantic attachment style (Allen, 2001; Bogaert and Sadava, 2002; Buunk, 1980; and Allen et al., 2005). In general, persons who emphasize independence from the spouse and feel insecure in the primary relationship or endorse a need for relationship variety and intimacy with others have higher rates of EMI; whereas those with higher relationship investment, who beliefs that sexual intercourse should be received for a loving relationship and had secure emotional dependence on the spouse have lower rates of extramarital involvement. Another approach to studying predisposing factor contributing to extramarital involvement is to ask respondents why they engage in extramarital sexual intercourse. Interpersonal reasons that have been mentioned include: curiosity and desire for variety, sensation seeking, experimental drives, reassurance of desirability or worth, to have fun, a need for conquest and power, combating a sense of inadequacy, escapism, exploring sexual orientation, or difficulties with intimacy (Atwood and Seifer, 1997; Glass and Wright, 1992; Greene, Lee and Lustig, 1974). (ii.) Spousal Predisposing factors: Allen et al (2005) hypothesized that certain behaviours of a spouse might be increased by the other partner‟s marital unhappiness and vulnerability to pursuing extramarital sexual involvement. Moreover, from a purely predictive standpoint, being a woman in a heterosexual relationship comprises of a spousal predisposing variable, given the higher overall rates of extramarital involvement for men. But it was observed that little research has examined predisposing spousal characteristics despite potential contributions of the spouse to a relational context of increased risk for extramarital involvement, hence it was posited that the dearth of empirical work in this domain may be attributable in part to concerns about “blaming the victim”. However, investigating spousal factors in a responsible and non blaming way can be clinically useful as a way to further understand the context in which a partner made the decision to engage in extramarital sexual behaviour. According to Gordon, Baucom, and Snyder (2004), this understanding can contribute to both recovery from an affair and reduction of risk for re- occurrence. It was noted that evaluated spousal characteristics are limited by their reliance 32 on the involved partner‟s rating of their spouses (Buunk, 1980) or by a very small sample that produces reliable conclusion. Buss (1991) and Buunk (1980) found that partners who had engaged in extramarital involvement were more likely to believe that their spouses approved of or had also engaged in extramarital involvement. (iii.) Marital Predisposing factors: It has been shown that some marital relationships are at higher a prior risk for extramarital involvement. According to Atwood and Seifer (1997); Glass and Wright (1992), when research participants were asked to justify their action for engaging in extramarital sexual involvement, problems with the relationship were often reported. Moreover, some authors asserted that extramarital involvement emerges primarily from a marital system (Brown, 1991). Specific problems cited are varied and include: boredom in the marriage, dissatisfaction with marital sexual intercourse, a lack of support in the marriage, or marital conflict. Extramarital involvement has been posited as a way to express hostility towards a spouse, exact revenge against a spouse, compensate for unmet needs in the marriage, or negotiate intimacy within a marriage. There are some data that indicates that a wife‟s pregnancy is a high-risk time for men to engage in extramarital sexual intercourse (Allen, 2001; Whisman, Chatav and Gordon, 2003). The majority of the research investigating marital characteristics related to extramarital involvement has focused on marital and sexual satisfaction, other relationship dynamics such as couple homogeny, power and equity in the relationship and autonomy within marriage had been studied. Demographic variables, including history of cohabitation prior to marriage, marital duration, and age at marriage had also been a focus of investigation. Again relating current levels of marital functioning to lifetime prevalence of extramarital involvement, it is noted that extramarital sex typically has a significant impact on marital functioning. Although no longitudinal studies were found with married participants that clearly controlled for initial extramarital involvement or assessed temporal sequencing of marital problems and extramarital involvement, there have been studies that ask participants to recall retrospective issues prior to extramarital involvement (Allen, 2001) or to assert the note that marital problem is a factor in the extramarital involvement (Spanier and Margolis, 1983). According to Allen (2001), 36% of involved partners indicated that there were significant marital problems prior to extramarital involvement, 30% reported spending a great deal of time apart, and 42% recalled sexual dissatisfaction prior to the 33 onset of their most recent extramarital sexual intercourse. In a sample of divorced or separated persons, Spanier and Margolis (1983) found that approximately 70% of those who had engaged in extramarital sexual behaviour reported that their extramarital involvement was largely a result of marital problems (Allen et al., 2005). Sexual satisfaction in marriage also has been studied in relation to extramarital involvement, based on the premise that persons may seek an extramarital partner to compensate for their marital sexual dissatisfaction, even though this could be an extramarital sexual intercourse (Allen, 2001). However, Hunt (1976) found that the quality of extramarital sexual intercourse was not reported to be better than the quality of marital sexual intercourse. In general, sexual dissatisfaction in marriage is associated with greater desire for extramarital involvement (Prins et al., 1993) and same is higher among those with a history of extramarital involvement (Johnson, Stanley, Glenn, Amato, Nock, Markman, and Dion, 2002; Liu, 2000; Traeen and Stigum, 1998; Waite and Joyner, 2001, and Allen et al., 2005). On the issue of cohabitation between spouses (in marriage), some literature indicates that spouses who lead relatively separate lives are at greater risk for engaging in extramarital sexeual intercourse or having more frequent extramarital involvement (Atkins et al.,2006; Blumstein and Schwartz, 1983). In addition, there is source evidence that a prior history of cohabitation is associated with slightly higher rates of extramarital involvement (Forste and Tanfer, 1996; Treas and Giesen, 2000). Imbalances in power and equity in the marital relationship according to Allen et al (2005), have generally been found to relate to a history of extramarital involvement. They noted that when couple report power differences in their relationship, the more powerful member of the relationship may be more likely to engage in extramarital involvement. For example, Edwards and Booth (1976) found that wives who report that they get their way more often during marital disagreement were more likely to report a history of extramarital involvement. In regard to equity, Prins et al (1993) found that both under and over benefited women (defined as those who contributed more or less than their partners to the relationship) reported more extramarital involvement as well as more desire for extramarital sexual intercourse, whereas imbalance in equity had no relation to men‟s extramarital involvement. It has also been found that under-benefited men and women 34 (defined as those who considered themselves more socially desirable than their spouse) reported more extramarital partners and had engaged in extramarital involvement sooner in their marriage (Walster, Traupmann, and Walster, 1978). (iv.) Contextual Predisposing factors: - This domain of predisposing variable include external (outside of marriage), Contextual factors that may contribute to or inhibit the likelihood of extramarital involvement. Contextual variables examined empirically include: a variety of opportunity variables (e.g.travel out of home); perceptions of the frequency and acceptability of extramarital involvement in one‟s social or cultural context, geographical region, and number of children (Allen et al., 2005). 1.) Opportunity: Several researchers have been able to cite “Opportunity” as an important variable in increasing the probability of extramarital involvement (Buunk, 1980; Johnson, 1970; Whitehurst, 1969). Saunders and Edwards (1984) reported that men typically report more opportunities to engage in extramarital sex than do women. They posited that even after controlling for wives‟ employment, men are more likely to indicate that they have been in a position in which they “could easily” have had sexual relations with someone other than their spouse (Johnson et al., 2002). „Opportunity‟ according to Allen et al (2005) has been operationalized in a number of ways but this is generally considered to refer to availability and willingness of alternative partners as well as other factors that would facilitate secret liaison from the spouse such as employment, income, urban residence and travel. An urban setting may provide more opportunity for extramarital sex, through more potential extramarital partners and greater anonymity or potential secrecy from the spouse. Some research has found that residence in a large urban area is related to a greater overall likelihood of engaging in extramarital sexual involvement (Traeen and Stigum, 1998; Treas and Giesen, 2000; and Allen and Baucom, 2004). However, Wiederman (1997) did not support this relation. 2.) Employment: Employment may also comprise an opportunity variable by exposing one to alternative partners, often with sustained propinquity and intimacy facilitating interactions, providing means (e.g. Funds, Excuses) to engage in extramarital involvement covertly, lessening dependence upon the spouse, or increasing one‟s desirability to alternative partners. In clinical amples of couples, according to Allen (2001); Glass (2003); 35 and Wiggins and Lederer (1984), 46 to 62 % of involved partners report that they met their extramarital partner at work. 3.) Increasing income:-Increasing income had also been identified as a factor that may facilitate extramarital involvement through increased status and desirability to alternative partners, or by having financial means for costs associated with extramarital involvement (Allen et al., 2005). According to Atkins et al (2001), above an annual income level of $30,000 there was positive relation between income and a history of extramarital involvement. Hence it was posited that men with higher income were more likely to report that they engaged in extramarital involvement “often” relative to men with lower income. Similarly, Buunk (1980), found that income and extramarital involvement were positively associated for men, but not for women. However in contrast, Amato and Rogers (1997) found virtual no relationship between income and extramarital involvement for men and women. 4.) Travelling out of home: Anecdotal evidence has shown that traveling out of home and leaving family members contributes to the opportunity to engage in extramarital involvement. Traeen and Stigum (1998) reported that „travelling out‟ which theoretically contributes to the opportunity to engage in covert extramarital involvement, does appear related to extramarital sexual practices. However, Spanier and Margolis (1983) found that respondents who took separate vacations from their spouses had higher rates of extramarital involvement but that the choice to take separate vacations is inextricably intertwined with martial dynamics and personal preferences, such as highly autonomous marriage which is a marital risk factor. 5.) Presence of alternative partners: This has been considered an important contextual factor in engaging in extramarital involvement. Buunk (1980) and Allen et al (2005) operationalized opportunity as the number of times a person other than the primary partner had clearly indicated sexual interest. In a marital therapy sample, Glass (2003) reported that almost every spouse who acknowledged extramarital involvement stated that their extramarital partner was either single or the one who was reportedly in the process of leaving an unhappy relationship. Richardson (1988) after interviewed single women who had been or were involved with a married man found that these women perceived high sexual freedom and personal control in their relationships. According to Moultrup (1990), 36 single extramarital partners theoretically, may have ambivalence about intimacy and have relationship with married person in order to avoid the demands of an exclusive relationship. Clinicians too, have commented on the contrast between the spouse and the extramarital partner; based on clinical observations, Pittman (1989) concluded that the choice of an extramarital partner is largely based on how different the other person is from the spouse. 6.) Peer Group effect: - Peer Group effect is another contextual variable that need to be considered when investigating into the predisposing factors relating extramarital sexual activities. Many authors like: Atwood and Seifer (1997); Lusterman (1997); Vaughan (1998); have discussed societal messages that may sanction or encourage extramarital involvement, particularly for men. It has been found that relative to individuals‟ not reporting extramarital involvement, those who have engaged in extramarital activities estimate a higher prevalence of extramarital involvement in their community or immediate social group, and consider their friends more willing to engage in extramarital involvement themselves, and also believe that their friends would be relatively approving of their extramarital involvement (Buunk, 1980; Buunk and Bakker,1995; Thompson,1984 in: Allen et al., 2005). 2.3.1. (B.) Approach factors Anecdotal evidence has shown that not all individual with higher potential probability of engaging in extramarital sexual behaviour do so, there are many persons with relatively low statistical likelihood of extramarital involvement based on predisposing factors or conditions who do go on to engage in extramarital sexual intercourse. When extramarital involvement does develop after meeting a potential extramarital partner, the attractions to extramarital involvement can be a very brief process or extended one. For example, Atwater (1979) and Allen et al (2005) found that most women who engaged in extramarital involvement actively thought about becoming involved for an average of a month, although, this period ranged from a few weeks to some years, before actually engaging in extramarital sexual behaviour. There are some factors which serve to move individuals toward extramarital involvement and these are referred to as „approach factors‟. Some authors have conceptualized these factors in a number of ways such as “threshold variables” (Spanier and Margolis, 1983), involving “perception of the currents situation” (Meyerling and Epling- McWherter, 1986) or “readiness for an affair” (Brown, 1991). According to Allen et al (2005), for those individual or couples who wish to reduce their 37 risk of extramarital involvement, identifying such approach factors could potentially help individuals to understand more proximal factors that significantly increase the probability of subsequent involvement in extramarital sexual practices. (i.) Involved partner approach factors: - Approach factors of the involved partner that have been emphasized in the literature according to Allen and Baucom (2004) generally focus on the cognitive processes that unfold in a person‟s moving closer to extramarital involvement. In posing a decision- making model to describe the process of engaging in extramarital involvement, Meyerling and Epling-McWherter (1986) suggested that in contrast to predisposing factors that address whether a person could engage in extramarital sexual behaviour (e.g. by having opportunity) and would a person engage in extramarital sexual behaviour (e.g.by having permissive attitudes), approach factors therefore involved a process in which the person evaluates whether they should become involved based on the perceived pay offs and consequences of the specific situation. This evaluation of potential costs and benefits is a highly subjective process that changes overtime with the situation; hence there could be gender differences in such decision-making processes. Decision making in extramarital involvement, is thought often to involve a series of smaller decisions contributing to the development of extramarital involvement (Brown, 1991 and Allen et al., 2005). For example, a person may initially have a friendly drink with opposite-sex co worker, began to spend more time with them and become increasingly intimate in their conversations, eventually withdraw more from his or her spouse and ruminate about marital problems, and finally reveal marital problems and feeling of attraction to the other person. Each of these behaviours is frequently accompanied by those that justify, rationalized or minimized the behaviour. According to Atwood and Seifer (1997), people generally do not usually set out to have extramarital sexual intercourse. The extramarital sexual behaviour is the result of an unfolding definitional process whereby a rationale for the activity is created over a period of time. Consistent with this assertion that people do not “set out” to have extramarital involvement, Allen (2001) found that most married respondents who had engaged in extramarital involvement reported that they had not been actively looking for extramarital involvement. (ii.) Spousal approach factors: - According to Allen et al (2005), there is no empirical literature that has specifically examined the attributes or behaviours of the spouse that may influence the development of extramarital involvement. However, some clinical literature 38 has proposed possible spousal “Collusion” in which the spouse is aware of the development of extramarital sexual involvement (consciously or unconscious) but does not discourage this or confront the spouse (Brown, 1991; Charny and Parnass, 1995) because they welcome a reduction in demands on themselves for emotional or sexual intimacy, and are generally uncomfortable with conflict, or are reluctant to confront their partners risk behaviour due to fear of antagonizing their partner or provoking them into leaving the marriage. (iii.) Marital approach factors: - Brown (1991) while exemplifying the interaction between individual and relationship variables, posited shifts in the experience of marital issues as part of the process of developing extramarital involvement. Such shifts according to Allen et al (2005) may be expressed as a feeling of frustration and readiness for change in response to repeated marital conflicts, for example, the experience of feeling “fed up” with marital conflicts. Thus, the process of approaching the involvement or engagement in extramarital sex may be concurrent with decreases in marital satisfaction, although this has not been empirically examined (Allen et al., 2005). (iv.) Contextual approach factors: - Allen and Baucom (2001) found that persons reporting a casual extramarital involvement were more likely to report rapid development of the extramarital sexual relationship, whereas respondents reporting a serious extramarital involvement more typically reported that the development was very gradual. Hence the development of extramarital involvement may differ depending on what type of extramarital involvement relationship it is. Input from other persons may be an important aspect of approaching extramarital involvement (Allen et al., 2005). On many occasions, according to Lawson (1988), discussions about possibly beginning extramarital involvement are held with the potential extramarital partner to the extent that these conversations are unsupportive of the spouse or the marriage. Atwater (1979) found that 55% of her sample of women recalled talking it over with someone before actually making the decision to become involved; often these were individuals who had engaged in extramarital involvement themselves. 2.3.1. (C.) Precipitating factors When we discuss the precipitating factors as it relate to the development of extramarital involvement, we may need to find out when do pre- extramarital involvement approach 39 behaviours develop into actual engagement in extramarital involvement, and what factors are contributing to this transition? Allen et al (2005) reported that at some point in a relationship with a potential extramarital partner, many individuals cross a threshold into actual extramarital involvement, but what is considered as “crossing the line” varies from person to person and that the subjective appraisal of the threshold of actual extramarital involvement change as the person progresses further into the relationship. (i.). Involved Partner Precipitating factors:- A decision- making model by Meyerling and Epling-Mc Wherter (1986) and reported in Allen et al (2005) suggests that aspects of choosing to engage in extramarital involvement include identifying costs and benefits, evaluating the relative values of these costs and benefits, estimating the likelihood of these consequences, and comparing the outcomes of alternative decisions. Often this process is dominated by a focus on short-term rather than long-term outcomes or inadequate appraisal of cost and benefits, particularly when feeling vulnerable or aroused. For example, Atwood and Seifer (1997) reported that respondents sometimes indicate that their extramarital involvement began when they were feeling emotionally vulnerable. Similarly, high levels of effective arousal (including sexual arousal) may undermine decision-making based on logic or higher order values and lead people to make decisions corresponding with their emotional state (Banfield and McCabe, 2001). Disinhibition from drugs or Alcohol according to Atwood and Seifer (1997) is also often cited as a reason for “crossing the line.” (ii.) Spousal and Marital Precipitating factors:- Anecdotal clinical reports revealed that the individuals often report making the transition from consideration of extramarital involvement to actual involvement following a particularly decreasing marital argument, threats of divorce by their partner, refusal of their partner to discus marital concerns, and similar events. But bye and large, no literature according to Allen et al (2005) has posited or investigated a role of the spouse or the couple‟s relationship in the actual onset of extramarital involvement; hence the absence of research in this domain stands in stark contrast to anecdotal clinical reports. (iii.) Contextual Precipitating factors: - Many authors have actually examined the contextual precipitating factors as it relate to the development of extramarital involvement. According to Allen (2001), when the respondents were asked for reasons for engaging in 40 extramarital involvement, some persons cited that they were being in a facilitative context or that it was a result of direct advances from the other person (Atwater, 1979; Atwood and Seifer, 1997 and Pittman, 1989). Conclusively more responsibility for initiating the sexual relationship is often attributed to the extramarital partner than to the self (Atwater, 1979). However, this is a recollection that is subjective to retrospective bias (Allen et al., 2005). 2.3.1. (D.) Maintenance factors Although a variety of factors can influence maintenance of extramarital affairs, according to Allen et al (2005),virtually no research has addressed this phase, hence much of the literature regarding maintenance factors remain at the theoretical level or draws upon clinical reports: (i.) Involved partner maintenance factors: - Hurlbert (1992) found that positive attitudes toward sex and loving feelings towards the extramarital partner predicted longer maintenance of extramarital involvement. Festinger‟s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory posits a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among attitudes and behaviour when there is inconsistency; attitudes often change to be more consistent with behaviour. Therefore, dissonance can encourage maintenance of extramarital relationship because an involved partner may be motivated increasingly more positively than the marital partner, adopt beliefs that the “marriage was over” or develop more permissive attitudes about extramarital affairs. Conversely, dissonance may motivate the individual to change behaviour and terminate extramarital involvement. Another maintenance factor relating to the involved partner is the issue of reinforcement contingencies operating during extramarital experience which increases association of guilt and conflict with the marital partner contrasting with acceptance and a sense of vitality with the extramarital partner. These relationship associations may encourage further investment in the involvement of extramarital affairs and once strong feelings have developed for the extramarital partner, it can be very difficult to terminate the relationship or the extramarital involvement even if participants believe that they should (Spring, 1996, and Allen et al., 2005). Martin (1989) has linked the development of extramarital involvement as akin to an “addiction” to the extent that once a person begin to be engaged in the association it may be difficult to terminate it despite a keen awareness of likely adverse consequences if he or she continues. 41 (ii.) Spousal maintenance factors: - Just as it is in the „approach phase‟ a process of spousal collusion has been posited, in which “affairs are chosen, encouraged, or at least allowed by an interactive and often clearly collusive agreement between the spouse engaging in the affair and cuckolded spouse” (Charny and Parnass, 1995). However, the evidence of such collusion is subject to interpretation; for example, Brown (1991) suggests that the spouse‟s frequent ability to guess the identity of the other person when the extramarital involvement is revealed suggests that the spouse may have had an unconscious awareness of the extramarital involvement. In contrast to this notion of spousal collusion, Glass and Wright (1997) stated that their own research and clinical observation do not support the system-oriented view that the betrayed spouse must have some level of awareness and colludes in an extramarital involvement triangle. (iii.) Marital maintenance factors: According to Allen and Baucom (2001), decreases in marital satisfaction may facilitate the maintenance of extramarital involvement (and the experience of extramarital involvement may erode concurrent marital satisfaction). Likewise, Drigotas et al (1999) in their research suggests that extradyadic involvement is accompanied by erosion in relationship quality. (iv.) Contextual maintenance factors: Extramarital Partners may influence contribution of extramarital involvement. For example, some involved partners according to Allen and Baucom (2001), report a fear of eroding extramarital relationship due to apprehensions regarding the response of the extramarital partner,(e.g, relation or self harm) (Spring, 1996). The secrecy and taboo surrounding extramarital involvement, just as in the approach phase may contribute to intensifying the bond with the extramarital partner. Allen and Baucom (2001) noted that persons engaging in extramarital involvement may experience perceived or actual disapproval and interference from others, or may have to expend substantial energies in finding ways to be together and that these kind of barriers to the relationship may likely serve to strengthen the bond in the extramarital relationship. Anecdotal evidence have shown that involved persons do describe the intensification of the relationship due to its “Forbidden” nature, which is empirically supported by research (though, not focused on extramarital involvement) (Driscoll, Davis and Lipetz,1972). 42 2.3.1. (E.) Disclosure or Discovery factors The decision to disclose extramarital involvement can be a very difficult one. How frequently is extramarital involvement either revealed to or discovered by the spouse, and what factors either increase or decrease the likelihood of this relationship? Choi et al (1994); Fals-Stewart, Birchler, Hocbbel, Kashdan, Golden, and Parks (2003) noted how important the issue of disclosure is. According to them, for example, non-disclosed extramarital involvement may place the spouse at risk for sexually transmitted diseases because most persons engaging in extramarital sex do not use condom with their extramarital partner or their spouse. Prince and Bernard (1998) opined “assumed monogamy is a frequently cited reason for not using condom in a primary relationship”. Although most respondents predict that they would tell their spouse if they ever engaged in extramarital sexual relationship (Wiederman and Allgeier, 1996). However several researchers have found that most involved partners report that their spouse does not know about the extramarital affairs (Allen, 2001; Fals- Stewart et al., 2003; Glass, 2003; Hunt, 1976; Yablonsky, 1979). In another development Blumstein and Schwartz (1983); Lawson (1988); Spanier and Margolis (1983) in their studies have found higher rates of spousal knowledge. (i.) Involved partner disclosure or discovery factors: - It is a common situation for persons to learn of their partner‟s extramarital affairs in ways other than a direct disclosure from their spouse. Allen (2001) found that 52% of respondents whose spouse knew of at least some aspect of the extramarital involvement indicated that they directly told their spouse; and that the remainder of spouses discovered the information in other ways. Based on clinical experience, Brown (1991) and Allen et al (2005) suggested that those who feel more guilt often provide their spouse with various clues in order to discover the extramarital involvement. Inconsistent with this therefore, Allen and Baucom (2001) posited that persons who see or perceive their involvement in extramarital relationship as “no big deal” are more likely to assert that their spouses were unaware of their extramarital involvement. (ii.) Spousal disclosure or discovery factors: Clinical experience suggests that certain behaviours (e.g confrontation) on the part of the spouse may precipitate disclosure. In actual fact, there are no empirical investigations of spousal factors that influence disclosure or discovery of extramarital involvement (Allen et al., 2005). 43 (iii.) Marital disclosure or discovery factors: Plausible hypotheses are that marital disclosure is more likely when marital satisfaction and concerns about discovery are both high or in relationship characterized by a prior history of successfully working through conflicts (Allen et al., 2005). In another way, marital disclosure may be more likely when relationship distress is high, as part of expressing dissatisfaction to the spouse or terminating the marriage (Allen, 2001). (iv.) Contextual disclosure or discovery factors: The type of extramarital involvement, appear to be a factor influencing discovery, because spouses are less likely to know about casual extramarital involvement relative to more serious extramarital participation (Allen and Baucom, 2001). Thus the only empirical findings about spousal knowledge revolved around classification or characterizations of the extramarital involvement as less serious, and this may reflect both an involved partner‟s tendency to minimize the extramarital relationship, and the true casual nature of the extramarital involvement (Allen et al., 2005). 2.3.1. (F.) Response factors There is a wide range of responses to extramarital involvement, which could be short and or long term. Extramarital involvement is typically associated with increased marital distress, conflict and divorce (Amato and Rogers, 1997; Betzig, 1989; Charny and Parnass, 1995; Edwards and Booth, 1976; Janus and Janus, 1993; Johnson et al., 2002; Kelly and Conley, 1989; Lawson and Samson, 1988; Allen and Baucom, 2004). Amato and Previti (2003) found that extramarital involvement was the most commonly reported cause of divorce. Daly and Wilson (1988) examined extramarital involvement and then cited the extramarital association or extramarital relationship “as a common precipitant” for domestic abuse. Extramarital involvement is one among the most difficult issues to be addressed therapeutically (Geiss and O‟ Leary, 1981; Whisman, Dixon, and Johnson, 1997). According to Beach et al (1985), involved partners with ongoing extramarital involvement in marital therapy sample are less committed to their partners. Glass (2003) reported that couple presenting for marital therapy with extramarital involvement are more likely to separate and divorce relative to other distressed couple presenting for marital therapy. Therefore, the typical impact of extramarital involvement on the marriage appears to be negative, although, some couples were seen able to emerge with stronger marriage 44 subsequent to extramarital involvement when the event are used as a precipitant to address longstanding relationship issues (Charny and Parnass, 1995 and Allen et al., 2005). Yet, anecdotal evidence has shown that many couples do not divorce following extramarital involvement, and some couple are seen able to engage in extramarital involvement as a part of a stable and satisfying open marriage. In addition to relationship problems highlighted above, personal distress often ensures. The spouse of the person engaging in extramarital involvement is often found to experience strong negative emotional reactions including shame, rage, depression, anxiety, a sense of victimization and symptom consistent with those seen in post traumatic stress disorder (Beach et al., 1985; Cano and O‟Leary, 2002; Charny and Parnass, 1995; Glass and Wright, 1997; Gordon and Baucom, 1999; Gordon et al., 2004 and Allen et al., 2005). (i.) Involved partner response factors: - Although extramarital involvement appears to bring a typical negative impact, the impact on the individual and relationship can vary based on the characteristics or behaviour of the involved partner. According to Spanier and Margolis (1983), gender appears pedictive of individual responses, as guilt reactions tend to be stronger in wives that have engaged in extramarital relationship than in husbands, who have engaged in the same. Beach et al (1985) however posited that the depression on the part of at least one of the spouses is more likely when it is the wife who engaged in extramarital involvement. The gender of the involved partner according to Allen and Baucom (2004), may also affect marital dissolution. Across history and culture, women‟s extramarital involvement has been relatively more sanctioned than men‟s extramarital involvement (Atwood and Seifer, 1997; Lusterman, 1997; Mackey and Immarman, 2001), and it also appears that divorces and thoughts of divorce are more common across various cultures subsequent to wives extramarital involvement compared to husbands‟extramarital engagement (Betzig, 1989; Glass, 2003; Lawson 1988; Veroff, Douvan, and Hatchett, 2003, and Allen et al., 2005). Reasons for increased divorce subsequent to wives‟ extramarital involvement could be due to greater sanctioning of extramarital involvement for women, but it is also possible that factors related to women‟s extramarital engagement (e.g marital distresses, emotionally close extramarital involvement) could make divorce more likely. And if both spouses engage in extramarital sexual involvement, this is associated with an even higher risk of divorce (Glass, 2003). 45 (ii.) Spousal response factors:- Glass and Wright (1997), based on clinical experience, asserted that the severity of reactions from the betrayed spouse are exacerbated by pre- existing difficulties with trust and self esteem, as well as the strength of “basic marital assumptions regarding a martial commitment to monogamy.” Following this perspective therefore, spouses who consider monogamy a fundamental part of the marital contract are believed to be more traumatized by their partner‟s extramarital involvement. Even in open marriages where some types of extramarital involvement are allowed, breaking marital contracts (e.g., by falling in love with the extramarital partner) would likely be considered infidelity and elicit distress in the spouse (Glass and Wright, 1997). Gender issue appears to influence relationship focused response behaviours. Jankowiak, Nell and Buckmaster (2002) found cross cultural evidence of women greater tendency to respond to extramarital involvement by distancing themselves from the relationship relative to men‟s greater propensity to respond with violence. (iii.) Marital response factors: Persons reporting satisfying marital relationships endorse greater remorse about their extramarital involvement (EMI) (Allen and Baucom, 2001). The combination of a partner initiating divorce and engaging in EMI appears particularly painful; Spouses whose partner initiated a divorce and engaged in extramarital relationship are more likely to be depressed than those spouses whose partner initiated divorce but had not engaged in extramarital involvement (Sweeney and Horwitz, 2001). Factors affecting relationship outcomes subsequent to extramarital involvement includes overall marital quality, the timing of the extramarital association and the manner in which couple discuss the extramarital involvement. Lower marital satisfaction and less commitment to matters concerning the development of the marriage has been found to relate to increased probability of divorce subsequent to extramarital involvement (Buunk, 1987; Glass, 2003) and extramarital involvement that occurs earlier in the marriage is more consistently associated with divorce than those ones that occurred later in marriage (Blunstein and Schwartz, 1983; Hunt, 1976 and Pittman, 1989). A couple‟s ability to discuss openly about the extramarital involvement with full disclosure of information may facilitate recovery (Glass, 2002; Gordon et al., 2000; 2004 and Vaughan, 2002). (iv.) Contextual response factors: - Some research has examined the role of contextual factors in individual and relationship outcomes. Such factors, according to Allen and Baucom (2004) include the degree of continuing threat from the extramarital involvement, 46 the type of extramarital engagement and the number of previous extramarital involvement. Clinical experience suggests that the degree of continuing threat from a partner‟s extramarital involvement affects spouses‟ response, for example, if the extramarital involvement is ongoing or the involved partner continues to have contract with the former extramarital partner (e.g. in a business or social capacity), then the spouse may have a deeper or more enduring traumatic reaction because they have difficulty rebuilding a sense of safety (Glass and Wright, 1997). The type of extramarital involvement (emotionally intimate versus primarily sexual) also predicts individual outcomes as involved partners who felt satisfied and close in their relationship with the extramarital partner experience less remorse or guilt regarding the extramarital involvement (Allen and Baucom, 2001; Spanier and Margolis, 1983). The type of extramarital relationship also has significant impact on marital outcomes, as combined sexual and emotional extramarital involvement appears to pose a relatively greater threat to the stability of the marriage (Glass, 2003). Finally, both theoretical and empirical literatures indicate that multiple betrayals would impede forgiveness and increase the probability of divorce (Fincham, 2000; Lawson, 1988). 2.4. Extramarital Sex, Secrecy, and the risk of HIV Unravelling the issue of secrecy in relation to men‟s extramarital sex is crucial for understanding some of the contradictory dynamics that contribute directly to the ways that men‟s extramarital sexual relationships translate into married women‟s risk of contacting HIV from their husbands. On the one hand, research has shown that nearly all men want to keep their extramarital relationships from their wives or spouses, although on rare occasions, a man without much pretence of harmony will openly flaunt his infidelity. But it was observed that even among men who like to show off their girlfriends to their male peers, there is a general tendency to try to hide these relationships not only from their wives but also from their extended families and their communities, especially in their village setting or wards. This according to Smith (2002) is in part, a means of protecting their wives and children from harmful gossip, and to protect their own reputations as well. But the implication is that the man may infect his wife who may not be permitted by culture to demand for use of condom before engaging in sexual relation with her husband. 47 2.5. Various risks or consequences of extramarital sexual relations Extramarital affairs can take its toll in some long- term consequences that both spouses will have to deal with for many years. Below are some of the identified risks or consequences of marital infidelity, all of which are of public health importance. They include: (1) Risk of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), (2) Risk of HIV Infection / AIDS, (3) Risk of divorce, or separation, (4) Risk of an unintended pregnancy, and abortion (Brown, 2007). 2.5.1. Risk of contracting SexuallyTransmitted Infections (STIs) Involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour could in no doubt lead to the risk of contracting Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) and encourage the spread or transmission of the same. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are defined as such human infections that are transmissible by sexual intercourse, which may be vaginal, and or oral. Initially, it was believed that gonorrhoea and syphilis were the only infections which could be transmitted by sexual intercourse; hence the name “Venereal Diseases” (VD) was given to them. As time went on, it becomes clear that there are more than 20 other conditions, which are sexually transmissible. According to the former Nigerian Hon. Minister of Health – Madubuike, in 1996, reliable data on various forms of STIs do not exist particularly in Nigeria. STIs are very common; affecting all ages and has an average prevalence rate of 9.3 % with some sexually active age groups at more risk than others. The consequences of these infections can be grave, leading to such conditions as infertility, ectopic pregnancy, cancer, neonatal infections and even death. National AIDS and STI control programme, Federal Ministry of Health and social services (1996) had declared that a reliable data on STIs do not exist particularly in Nigeria, hence the exact size of the problem is unknown, anecdotal evidence revealed that STIs are very common and are one of the top five infections for which people seek care. However, publications from hospital- based studies give the following national average figures as the current prevalence rates for the various STIs Viz: (1) Non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) (26.3%), (2) Post–pubertal gonorrhoea (18.03%), (3) Trichomoniasis (9.78%), (4) Candidiasis (9.62 %), (5) Chancroid (4.28%), (6) Primary syphilis (2.28%), (7) Genital warts (1.87%), (8) Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) (1.47%) and (9) Genital herpes (2.2%). 48 There is high risk for contracting any of these sexually transmitted diseases by any married men who engages in sexual intercourse outside marriage without the use of a condom as a means of protection. Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja (2001) declared that some countries have achieved a fall in rates of bacterial STIs as a result of easily accessible services and effective antibiotics treatment coupled with behavioural change and that in many developing countries including Nigeria, this has not been possible because of inadequate services, lack of public education, inappropriate drug regimens and other socio-economic factors. The situation has been further complicated by the present pandemic of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) caused by the „Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). The incidence of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) according to Bamiwuye et al (2004) is found to be highly correlated with likelihood of engaging in extramarital sexual relations. And that married men with history of contact with Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are 1.7 times more likely to be unfaithful in marriage than those with no history of disease. According to Afolabi (2003), „Gonorrhea‟ and other deadly venereal diseases are the “reward an adulterer receives in return from his unbridled sexual escapade. Some unwary men have become victims of misfortune in the hands of demon possessed ladies during their amoral tango and continue to pay dearly for it” 2.5.2. Risk of HIV Infection and AIDS AIDS short for „Acquired Immuno-deficiency syndrome or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,‟ and occasionally written as “AIDS” is a human disease characterized by progressive destruction of the body‟s immune system. It is believed by the overwhelming majority of medical opinion to result from infection with HIV, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. This infection is commonly believed to be acquired and transmitted through sexual intercourse and contact with infected blood and bodily fluids. Hence involving in extramarital sex could be a high risk for the spread and its transmission. According to Schensul et al (2006), Men's extramarital sexual behaviour is the most important factor for introducing HIV/STI into marital life. The 2008 NDHS findings indicate that 1 percent of women and 10 percent of men had two or more sexual partners during the 12 months preceding the survey. Ten percent of women and 23 percent of men had higher-risk sexual intercourse in this period. Among 49 these respondents, only 33 percent of women and 54 percent of men reported that they used a condom the last time they had sexual intercourse with a higher-risk sexual partner. Among the adult population age 15-49, 17 percent of women and 15 percent of men have been tested for HIV at some time. Seven percent of women and 7 percent of men received the results from their last HIV test that was taken in the past 12 months (NDHS, 2008 Report). AIDS was first noticed among homosexual men and intravenous drug users in the 1980s; and by the 1990s the syndrome had become a global epidemic disease (UNAIDS, 1998). While homosexual men continue to suffer higher per capita AIDS rates, the majority of victims are currently heterosexual women and men, and children, in developing countries. AIDS is currently considered incurable; where treatments are unavailable most sufferers die within a few years of diagnosis. In the United States and other western countries, treatment has improved greatly over the past decade, and people have lived with AIDS for ten to twenty years (Odebiyi, 1992). But according to Obioha (2003) Human –Immune- Deficiency Virus has emerged as one of the most serious disease causing organism (virus) that faces the developing world, especially the countries of Africa with consequences that reach far beyond the health sector. It is described as a health and social catastrophe of genocidal propotion that has the capacity to roll back the gains of our democratic rights meaningless. United Nations Department of Public information (1994) opined that it is in Sub-Saharan Africa, the world‟s poorest and least developed region, where HIV / AIDS has gone from emergency to tragedy endangering not just the lives of its victims but the social economic and political fabric of our society. Presently, the statistics on the prevalence of HIV / AIDS in the continent of Africa is still controversial. In some quarters, it is believed that the given statistics produced by western sponsored projects is „demonizing‟ purposely to ridicule Africa, while for some schools of thought, the statistics reflects what obtains in reality. Yet, for others, it is still underestimated and uncertain (Obioha, 2003). Adomako-Ampofo (1999) stated that relative to North America and Europe, an estimate on the incidence of AIDS in Africa is still uncertain; due to the methods of their research work. WHO on the other hand routinely collects AIDS cases through voluntary reporting by national authorities, WHO believes that the total number of cases reported in Africa is under reported and estimates the number based on public health surveillance data and the use of an AIDS estimation model. For 50 instance, as of December 1992, WHO estimated a cumulative total of 2.5 million AIDS cases worldwide (compared to 612,000 reported) with a disproportionate 71percent believed to have occurred in Africa (United Nations Department of public information, 1994). Many African researchers and physicians, however, believed this to be an overstatement and overestimation of African case (Lathan, 1993). The spread of HIV/AIDS is continually on the increase, as it is the case in Nigeria, South Africa, and Botswana among others. Even though, the reading of the magnitude of increase may differ, and recent picture and figure on HIV/AIDS epidemic in Africa still point to the fast growing rate of the epidemic. All over the world available fact sheets suggest that the spread of HIV/AIDS has exceeded the worst projections by far. Obioha (2003) reported that as at 1998, 34 million people in the world were living with HIV / AIDS, and one third of these were young people between the ages of 10 and 24. The epidemic continues unabated as 16,000 people worldwide become newly infected each day. According to the UNAIDS (1998), fourteen million adult and children have already lost their lives to this devastating disease, and the death toll rises each year. The African situation is gruesome; where deaths due to HIV/AIDS are likely to surpass the 20 million Europeans killed by the plague epidemic of 1347-1351 if proper care is not taken to control the epidemic (Decosas and Adrian, 1999). HIV had infected nearly 5 million, and killed more than 3 million people in 2005 (UNAIDS, 2006). Traditional epidemics have been limited to high-risk populations, in many regions, it has generated to a large population, with heterosexual sex being the predominant source of transmission. The virus has hit sub-Saharan Africa the hardest, although major epidemics are now transpiring in Asia, Eastern Europe, and the Caribbean. Nigeria has the biggest population in Africa with 1 in 6 Africans being Nigerian (Odebiyi, 1992). Although, HIV prevalence rates are much lower in Nigeria than in other African countries such as South Africa and Zambia, the size of Nigeria‟s population meant that by the end of 2003, there were an estimated 3,600,000 people living with HIV / AIDS (Dermatol, 2006). 51 2.5.3. Risk of divorce or „Separation‟- Extramarital sexual liaisons could pose a risk for divorce or separation in marriage if the other partner (in conjugal union) knows about the affairs. Today, one out of every four marriages in Britain is expected to end in divorce. In 1992 alone, over 1.2 million marriages in the United States of America ended in divorce. And millions of marriages fail worldwide every year through divorce, separation, desertion and even murder and suicide (Christian Women Mirror Magazine, April, 1996). Research also revealed that 17 % of divorces in the United States are caused by infidelity (Gordon, 2007). Having to deal with an extramarital affair can be a life – changing event, regardless of whether the partner stay married or not. Inescapable feelings can come over both people who live through an extramarital affair that will never be forgotten by either of them. The person who actually had the extramarital affair can have feelings of guilt, loneliness, confusion and misdirection along with many other feelings. The „partner‟ who did not have the extramarital affair can have these feelings as well, but the lack of confidence that can come as a result of the other person having an affair can be one of the toughest parts to deal with. According to Robert (2005) the feelings that come as a result of one or both parties having an extramarital affair are natural but can also be extensions of something much deeper. Of course, if someone has an extramarital affair, both people in that marriage will have feelings that will be “surface level” only at first. Arguments can occur, denial may set in, and or tempers can flare due to the extramarital affair. Studies also found that men are less forgiving of affairs than women. It was posited that when a woman has a physical affair, she‟s risking her marriage more than a man who has a physical affair (Gordon, 2007). 2.5.4. Unintended pregnancy / Abortion Extramarital sexual relationship without the use of condom carries with it a lot of risks out of which „Unintended pregnancy‟ is one, for the woman involved, apart from the risk of infection. Hence it is a significant public health problem. One consequence of unwanted pregnancy is „Induced abortion‟. Studies have consistently indicated that large numbers of Nigerian women experienced unwanted or mistimed pregnancies and births. According to a 1997 survey of women in Southwestern Nigeria, at least 27% of women had ever been pregnant when they did not want to be (Oye-Adeniran, Bankole, Hussaen and Sedgh, 1994). Also, Sedgh; Bankole; Oye-Adeniran; Adewole; Singh; and Hussaen (2006), stated 52 that in the mid-1990s, the abortion rate in Nigeria was estimated at 25 per 1000 women. At this rate, approximately 760,000 abortions were predicted to occur in 2006. The implication of this is that a large proportion of Nigerian women are becoming pregnant when they do not want to. But according to Sedgh; Singh; and Hussaen (2007), among the various reasons most women cited for their most recent attempt to terminate an unwanted pregnancy was being unmarried at the time of the pregnancy, stopping childbearing or spacing births as their primary reason, being too young or still in school, having pregnancy for a man who is not her husband and having problems with their sexual partner. Other reasons are economic issues and health problems. 2.6. Optimistic biases about perception of risk in relation to extramarital sex „Perception‟ is the process by which „organisms‟ interprete and organizes sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. It is better described as one‟s ultimate experience of the world and typically involves further processing of sensory input. „Perception‟ is a way of concerning something. Perception of risk is considered to be the first stage towards behavioural change from risk-taking to safer behaviour (Priscilla; Nyovani; and Andrew, 2003). Most people that are in risky sexual behaviour tend to be less familiar with the consequences of such serious health risks (e.g.risk of HIV/AIDS) and hence continue to have consistent, optimistic biases concerning such personal risk. When asked about their own chances or susceptibility to HIV infection for example, they claim that they are less likely to be affected than their peers (Priscilla et al., 2003). Optimistic biases also appear for positive events: people regard themselves as more likely than the others to experience financial success, career advancement, and long life. Pessimistic biases are rare. Some biases occur when people compare themselves with an incorrect norm. The risk of becoming addicted to drug, (or involving in certain behaviour such as womanizing) is small for the most population, but it seems that people conclude incorrectly that their risk is far below average by comparing themselves to for example, drug user: a salient high risk group, rather than to people like themselves who are perpetrating in extramental sexual relationship and whose numbers are far numerous (Weinstein, 2003). Optimism may also arise when ambiguous risk factors are interpreted in a biased manner. People who have not tested their blood for routine HIV screening and yet involving in 53 extramarital sexual activities could assert that they are less likely to have any Sexually Transmitted Infection than their colleagues on the street. Their most frequent explanation could be that they are very healthy, and that after all they are well protected. There are also times when people are clearly in high-risk groups but downplay the risk or refer to risk- countering practices of little value. When gaymen were asked to rate the riskiness of their behaviour for contracting AIDS, few who engaged in high-risk sex rated their own risk at high. Others justified their beliefs by referring to their relatively low number of sexual partners or to their own effective precautions, such as inspecting their partners for lesions or showering after sex. In general, people optimized greatly for hazards with which subjects have little personal experience, for hazard rated low in probability, and for hazards judged to be controllable by personal action. Optimism is also strong if people think that signs of vulnerability appear early (as they think is true of diabetes, alcoholism, and asthma), so that an absence of present signs means they are exempted from future risk (Weinstein, (2003). Optimistic biases in personal risk perceptions are important because they may seriously hinder efforts to promote risk- reducing behaviours. If people believe they are not susceptible to AIDS, or less susceptible than others, it may be more difficult to convince them to adopt prudent precautions. There are many positive correlations in the literature between beliefs of personal vulnerability and protective behaviour, but there are also situations where greater perceived susceptibility does not lead to greater actions. However, there has been little research on these differences. Although one usually thinks of biases as maladaptive, several authors have emphasized the benefits of illusions. Optimism about personal risk is associated with less depression while optimism about successful performance leads people to try harder on difficult task, so that they really do succeed more often. A general tendency to be optimistic may even have positive consequences for physical health. Weinstein (2003) posited that the benefits of illusions surely depend on the nature of the illusion and the nature of the hazard. A failure to admit that our smoking, driving while intoxicated or having an unprotected sex puts us at risk and may keep us from making changes and this could prove disastrous. When considering threats to certain risks, it was posited that women are more responsive to risks than men in whom they see as more likely to occur and to be more destructive (Meyerling, and Epling-McWherter, 1986). 54 2.7. SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW The review of literature in this study covered the following areas: Prevalence of extramarital sexual behaviour; human sexuality and sexual behaviour; determinants of sexual behaviour; concept and theory of marriage; socio-cultural factors influencing extramarital sex; intrapersonal, interpersonal and contextual factors in extramarital involvement; extramarital sex, secrecy, and the risk of HIV and finally various risks or consequences of extramarital sexual relations. Extramarital sexuality occurred worldwide, and it is a public health challenge affecting lots of people. It covers a broader range of physical involvements and not just intercourse - which include emotional infidelity and sexualized internet relationships. Extramarital sexuality has been found to be more common among males than females (Obbo, 1987, In: Bamiwuye et al., 2004). It cuts across tribes, regions, countries, and continents. Recent studies and statistics suggest that globally 40% of women and 60% of men are at one point indulge in extramarital affairs (Atwood and Schwartz, 2002 and Vaughan, 2002). In Brazil, and other Latin American countries there is a practice, which insists on sexual monogamy for women while tolerating extramarital sexual activities for men (Diniz, and Araujo, 1994). Extramarital sexual activity is also common in Urban China. As in year 2000, the prevalence was 3.9% among women and 20.6% among men, with the components of the men‟s prevalence being 11.8% for non-commercial sex and 8.8% for commercial sex (Zhang et al., 2008). In India society, extramarital affairs are common. Report of the study conducted by Schensul et al (2006) on „Men‟s extramarital sex, marital relationships and sexual risk in Urban poor communities in India revealed that slightly over a fifth of married men interviewed reported that they had ever had extramarital sexual involvement. In Uganda, it was reported that the bangada men frown upon a man who is faithful to his wife and adultery seems to be a common practice among their women (Kisekka, 2003). Anarfi (1993) reported that extramarital relations appeared widespread throughout Lesotho where„Banyantsi‟ individuals could easily be identified. In Zambia, extramarital sexual activity is not uncommon. Multivariate data analyses from Zambia Demographic and Health Survey, 2001-2002 which were performed to identify factors associated with men's extramarital sexual behaviour, with a focus on wealth revealed that overall, 19% of married 55 men had had extramarital sex in the year prior to the survey; their mean number of partners was 1.3. Likewise in Nigeria, the Yagba people of the middle belt (Kogi state) have a custom whereby the height of a man showing his friendship to another man is for the former to give his wife to the latter to sleep with her as a mark of the closeness of their relationship (Oyekanmi, 1994 c.). The result of a study of sexual networking among market women in Benin City (Edo state), Nigeria, showed that 26% of market women surveyed by reasercher claimed that they have had sexual intercourse with strangers and 70% of the women have had extramarital relationship in the preceeding years (Omorodion, 1993). Human sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life and it encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviour, practices, roles and relationship (Report on Technical Consultation on sexual Health, Geneva, WHO, 2005). Human Sexual behaviour are actions related to the expressions of one‟s sexuality, while activities related to sexual expression that are performed habitually or repeatedly can be reffered to as „Sexual practices‟. Sexual behaviour and sexual practices therefore are what people do sexually with each other or with themselves. Determinants of sexual behaviour and practices include the following: (1.) Society‟s tradition, customs, religion, values and beliefs, (2.) the history and experience of the culture, (3.) economic and political conditions (Engender Health, 2001). Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage so as to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures (Bell, 1997). Bye and large, the definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is usually an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual intercourse, are acknowledged. According to Sing (1922), „Marriage‟ is the union of two different surnames, in friendship and in love, in order to continue the posterity of the former sages, and to furnish those who shall preside at the sacrifices to heaven and earth, at those in the ancestral temple, and at those at the altars to the spirits of the land and grain. 56 . Marriage (or wedlock) is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. Such a union, often formalized via a wedding ceremony, may also be called “matrimony”. Many cultures limit marriage to two persons of the opposite sex, but some allow forms of polygamous marriage, and some recognize same sex marriage. In some conservative cultures, marriage is recommended or compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity (Kelly et al., 1983). Extramarital sexual activity can be defined as sexual intercourse between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse (Merriam-Webster Online dictionary). Extramarital sexual involvement occurs when a married person engages in sexual activity with someone other than the marriage partner (Wikipedia-Dictionary.com-The free Dictionary). Among the root causes of extramarital involvement mentioned in the literature include: conflict avoidance; loss of affection between married partners; splict-self and a means of exciting from an unhappy marriage; dissatisfaction with the marrtal relationship; result of disappointment in the current relationship; lack of intimacy in the marriage; problem in raising children; job changes; death of family members and need for sexual variety (Brown, 2007, and Walsh, 2006). Many a times, employment opportunity or type of occupation may comprise an opportunity variable by exposing an individual to alternative sex partners. Allen (2001); Glass (2003); Wiggins and Lederer (1984) opined that 46 to 62 % of involved partners reported that they met their extramarital partners at work. The nature of the work of the Nigerian military personnel for example, involve frequent transfer of officers away from the family, this according to Nwokoji, and Ajuwon (2004) is a key feature of military service. According to the Joint United Nations Program on AIDS (2003) frequent transfers favour sexual contact with female sex workers (FSW), apart from the emotional stress this places on individuals. On socio-cultural factors, Wardlow (2007) stressed that social and cultural factors that propel and structure men‟s extramarital sexuality are present to some extent in all societies, and that men‟s extramarital sexuality varies widely in terms of frequency, pattern, cultural 57 meaning and personal significance. Socio-economic contexts was also observed to structure both opportunities and disincentives for men‟s extramarital liaisons, thus whether and how often a married man engages in extramarital relations depend on a wide range of material and ideological factors, including geographical opportunity, the degree of stigma or the prestige conferred by extramarital liaisons, male peer group, patterns of socialising and so on (Allen et al., 2005). Perception of risk is considered to be the first stage towards behavioural change from risk- taking to safer behaviour (Priscilla; Nyovani; and Andrew, 2003). However, most people that are in risky sexual behaviour tend to be less familiar with the consequences of such serious health risks (e.g.risk of HIV/AIDS) and hence continue to have consistent, optimistic biases concerning such personal risk. In essence „Pessimistic biases‟ are rare. When people are asked about their own chances or potential susceptibility to HIV infection for example, they claim that they are less likely to be affected than their peers (Priscilla et al., 2003). Most survey research uses extramarital sexual intercourse as the target variable thereby exempting a significance number of individuals who have engaged in some form of sexual or romantic behaviour outside of marriage but have not had sexual intercourse. The implication of this is that the result of the actual prevalence rate of perpetrators in extramarital behaviour in the real sense of it would not be accurately determined. Hence a gap had been created by most survey researches which used extramarital sexual intercourse only as the target variable. In a bid to fill this gap, and in order to overview what is known about extramarital activities across all domains, the reasearcher therefore adopted an organisational system developed by Allen et al (2005) to explain into detail and systematically present factors which prompt the development and maintenance of extramarital behaviour among married men. This organisational system contains hypothetical examples of variables, taking into consideration intrapersonal, interpersonal, and contextual factors in engaging in and responding to extramarital involvement, all of which are discussed in the literature under these two domains: Temporal and Source dimension respectively. Factors discussed under a temporal dimension include: Predisposing factors, precipitating factors, approach factors, maintenance factors, disclosure or discovery factors and response factors. 58 All the above mentioned six stages reflect the fact that engaging in and responding to extramarital involvement is a process. It was stated that at any given stage of development, extramarital involvement may be influenced by the following factors: Involved partner factors, Spousal factors, Marriage (marital) factors, and Contextual factors. Each of which could operate separately or interactively. Each factor under a temporal dimension was described in association with the corresponding variable under the source domain. For example, „Predisposing factors‟ were discussed extensively using corresponding variable or factors arrange under a source dimension and presented in a systematic order as follows: - Involved partner predisposing factors: Factors identified as mainly attributable to the individual engaging in extramarital behaviour and can be demographic. E.g. Age, Sex, Religion, Family history. - Spousal predisposing factors: Certain behaviours identified from a spouse who might bring about the other partner‟s marital unhappiness and vulnerability to pursuing extramarital involvement. However, little research has examined this spousal characteristic despite potential contributions of the spouse to a relational context of increased risk for extramarital involvement. - Marital predisposing factors: Problems within marriage such as marital conflicts, dissatisfaction with marital sexual intercourse (etc). - Contextual predisposing factors: Identified as variables outside of marriage that may contribute to or inhibit the likelihood of engaging in extramarital behaviour such as variety of opportunity (e.g. Traveling away from home due to official assignment). Other variables such as precipitating factors, approach, maintenance, disclosure or discovery factors and response factors that come to play in extramarital involvement were reviewed and presented in the same pattern as above. On the issue of extramarital sexual intercourse, secrecy, and the risk of STIs or HIV, Smith (2002) observed that nearly all men who get involved in extramarital sex want to keep their extramarital relationships secret from their wives / spouses and their extended families as means of protecting their wives and children from harmful gossip, and to protect their own reputations as well. But the implication is that the man may infect his wife who may not be permitted by culture to demand for use of condom before engaging in sexual relation with her husband. 59 Extramarital affairs can take its toll in some long-term consequences that both spouses will have to deal with for many years. Below are some of the identified risks or consequences of marital infidelity, all of which are of public health importance. They include: risk of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) other than HIV; risk of HIV/AIDS; risk of divorce or separation; and risk of unintended pregnancy (Brown, 2007). 60 2.8. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK In this study, efforts were made to discuss a theoretical framework that focus predominantly on individual factors in relation to extramarital involvements. In addition, consideration was also given to the use of a framework that tries to encompass multiple domains across time to facilitate a clear understanding of what is and is not known, as well as encourage more programmatic research regarding extramarital involvement. PRECEDE MODEL „Precede Model‟ is considered to be appropriately suitable for understanding the conceptual framework of this research study. The acronym „PRECEDE‟ are: Predisposing, Reinforcing and Enabling Cause in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation. Precede Model as a conceptual framework for understanding the predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour among married men can be explained as stated below: The Precede Model is made up of the following steps as it is adapted from the „PRECEDE MODEL by Green, Kreutzer et al, (1980), In: Brieger, (2002). The steps are: Step I: Quality of Life Diagnosis. Step II: Health status Diagnosis. Step III: Behavioural Diagnosis. Step IV: Educational Diagnosis. Step V: Strategy planning (Administrative Diagnosis) Step VI: Implementation. Step VII: Evaluation. Using precede model to explain this study, therefore, we would need to considered step III and IV straight away. That is „Behavioural and Educational Diagnosis‟ respectively. Here, the antecedent factors are: Predisposing factor (Administrative Diagnosis); Enabling factors (Resources issues); Reinforcing factors (social, political, feedback influences). (1.) The predisposing factors: These factors include cognitive and affective domain such as knowledge, attitude, belief and perceptions. a.) Knowledge as a modifying factor in this context would refer to the knowledge acquired or possessed by individual married man about various dangers and consequences of extramarital affairs, again what he knows and understand as an individual about sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS, the threat of the infection, its severity and deadly 61 nature of the problem, how this knowledge has modified his sexual behaviour as to help to maintain a quality healthy life, this is a predisposing factor. b.) Beliefs of these married men about the reality of HIV/AIDS: This also is a modifying factor in the sense that the belief they hold, whether positive or negative about the issue under discussion, would help them to regulate their sexual behaviour either positively or otherwise which invariably would determine their quality of life. c.) Perceptions of the threat of STIs / HIV as low, moderate or severe and fear of the secrecy of extramarital affairs leaking out, would dictate how importantly as necessary to take precautions very early, avoiding social embarrassment and try to maintain his social reputation. d.) Perceptions about their potentials for susceptibility to STIs / HIV and its outcome risks and possible disintegration of marriage are as well a modifying factor. e.) Attitude of an individual towards women, his affection for women, being a womanizer- always love to move and interact with women before marriage. This pre-marital quality can be a predisposing factor to his perpetration in extramarital sexual activities, even after having successful marriage. (2.) The enabling factors: These are resource issues such as barrier or facilities as logistic factors and they include: a.) Skills or ability to perfectly utilize preventives like condom to prevent Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs). b.) Ability to keep extramarital affairs very secret from relations including wife or wives for maintenance of peace, and to protect his own social reputations. c.) Availability and accessibility of condom / services. d.) Presence of alternative sexual partners. e.) Availability of hotel accomodation or relaxation centre, where he could lodge with his sexual partner. f.) Opportunity to keep a distant wife or wives: as a result of transfer of appointment or travelling away from home on official assignment, leaving family members,which enables him to be exposed to a hotel life and have friendship with sexual partners (creating opportunity for engaging in extramarital sexual behaviour). g.) Economic status or financial where whither to showcase and maintain friendship with 62 woman friends. This is also a modifying factor, especially a man with a good job and sustainable income, who can afford to spend for women; such a person could have the potentials of engaging in extramarital affairs, to show forth his wealth. h.) Occupation: The type of occupation or the work environment is a modifying factor as well, especially „itinerant trading‟ in various motor parks and joints by women, some of whom their husbands are distant away or they have divorced or already separated and are interested in relating with travellers and drivers for socio-economic reasons. Above mentioned points are enabling factors, which could assist individual men who might perceived extramarital relations as „opportunity‟ that they could seize and enjoy for social gratification, which may later have negative consequences on their reproductive health or destabilize their marriages. (3.) The reinforcing factors: They may be social, political, feedback influences and these include: a.) Cues to action such as advice from significant others e.g. Parents, Sisters, Brothers, Uncle and Friends and colleagues in business. Such advice may either act as positive or negative reinforcement and this may go a long way in modifying that individual‟s sexual behaviour and reproductive health status in particular. For example, he may be advised to have a woman outside his matrimonial home to raise children for him because his wife at home is barren. b.) Attitudes and behaviours of friends, peers, and family members who keep women friends and multiple sexual partners could reinforce the behaviours of a colleague or related married man who is already in extramarital affairs to continue the same. c.) Observations of what other people are doing or what is happening to others may add cues to action as well. This is because man is affected by what he sees. For example, a driver who operates in a city, there is a tendency for him to be exposed to many women, majority of whom may be his regular customers or passengers in his Taxi cab, who usually form the habit of dressing scantly, revealing vital parts of their body. Since what a man sees can have a positive or negative influence on his thought, this can influence his sexual behaviour, as he may decide to keep multiple sexual partners or engage in extramarital affairs or if under pressure, he may decide to have / engage in casual sexual intercourse (even) with a new partner (without condom use). 63 On the other hand, if he had seen one of his professional colleague, admitted in the hospital; having diagnosed to have an “HIV infection” and having observed the signs of the illness and had once listened to and perhaps heard from the man (who is sick) about those symptoms he had been passing through, this can shock him and make him feel threatened and could be afraid. He may then try to disengage from participating in risky sexual behaviour and hands off completely from extramarital involvement. We can see that observations of what is happening to others‟ or what a man sees daily can reinforce behaviour either positively or negatively. d.) Family structure and social group memberships as modifying factors to extramarital affairs is identified as a strong reinforcing factor. Social group promotes behavioural change by legitimizing and reinforcing safer sex practice and by representing them as the accepted social norm (“Everybody does it”) and by translating media message into relevant familiar language. e.) Influence of opinion leaders [e.g. religious leaders] could have either a positive or negative influence on the conduct of a married man whose wife is having a problem of infertility, on whether to take a decision to engage or disengage from participating in extramarital sexual relations. Predisposing factor, Enabling and Reinforcing factors are what led to „Behavioural Diagnosis‟ because they determine thet type of behaviour an individual would put up. They are together entrenched in what is called “Educational diagnosis”. In essence, „Educational diagnoses‟ are antecedent factors as mentioned above and „Behavioural diagnosis‟ is determined by their outcomes. Behavioural diagnosis will lead us to „Epidemiological diagnoses‟ and epidemiological diagnoses will lead us to „Quality of Life‟ which is our expected goal. Below is the diagrammatic representation of „PRECEDE MODEL‟ as adapted to predisposing factors relating to extramarital sexual behaviour and perceptions of threat of HIV/AIDS infections among married men in Ibadan North L G A. 64 PRECEDE Model EDUCATIONAL DIAGNOSIS BEHAVIOURAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL/ QUALITY OF LIFE DIAGNOSIS HEALTH DIAGNOSIS DIAGNOSIS Predisposing factors -Knowled ge about various dangers and consequences of Extramari tal affairs. -Perception about Social implications of been divorced if wife knows. - Awareness of ones social reputation in the society. - Knowledge about STDs/ HIV and A IDS. - Beliefsand perceptions towards care of STDs/HIV, (perceptio n of threat of HIV and AIDS). -His attitu de and perception towards PLWHA. P L W H A E. nabling Factors ac-t oNros rms including HIV & -Man‟s survival is an AIDS pol icy/legislation - Seeking Health -Reduction in the risk asset to the health of -Self care skills & ability to counselling to avoid been of contracting STD the whole family - utilize preventives(condom). infected with STDs. /HIV infection. (esp. children‟s health. Accessibility and availability -Avoiding extramarital -Freedom from social -Good health of the of condoms. sex when wife is away or embarrassment. family enhances both - Econom ic cost/lack of pregnant, and during -Maintenance of good community & nation‟s money. post-partum abstinence social reputation. economic &social dev. -Wife is distant awayas a period. -.Freedom from been - Reduction in result of job transfer. -Protection of reputation. divorced / gossip by workforce‟s morbidity. -Frequent transfer of staff - Rejection of advices neighbours & friends. -Increase in life (e.g. as p olice,mitary,prison) that is negative to ones -Maintenance of job expectancy. - No skilled health workers health. security. - Ability to live for STD/ HIV Counselling and Testing (HCT). positively. --- Denial/Denial of Reinforcement jobs/privileges ---Health seeking - Negati ve messages from behaviours of PLWHAs media.(sex advertisement). -Attitude s of wife/wives. -Imitations of friends who engage in extramarital affairs. -Socio-c ultural influences. - Hostile community / co- workers / employees. -Other socio-economic unit of identities to which the individual is affiliated e.t.c. Figure 1 Source: Concepts adapted from National Institute of Health (2005). Theory at a glance: A guide for health promotion practice. National Institute of Health. United State Department of Health and Human Services. 65 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter comprises of the research design, scope of the study, and description of the study area. It also describes the study population, study variables, the methods and instruments of data collection and data analysis. Finally, it explains the limitations of the study. 3.1 Research Design A cross-sectional descriptive study design was used for this study. It was designed to assess the predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour among married men in Ibadan North LGA. 3.2 Scope of Study The study assessed the predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour among married men in Ibadan North LGA. The study was carried out to determine the prevalence of extramarital sexual involvemnt among married men in Ibadan North LGA, to determine the influence of occupation on the sexual behaviour of married men, to analyse the socio- cultural factors that influence perpetration in extramarital sex among married men and to assess and document the perceptions of respondents on the risks associated with such sexual practices as well as to document the perceptions of respondents on susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS. 3.3 Independent and Dependent Variables. 3.3.1: Independent variables are the presumed causal factors, the variables that are been manipulated in a study. In this study, Independent variables are factors which cause an individual to participate or get involved in extramarital sex such as the demographic characteristics, e.g.: Age, Education, Number of wives, religion affiliations, Socio-cultural factors like Cohabitation/relationship with spouse, loneliness, and marital disputes / quarrels, social organisation and Peer group influence. 66 3.3.2: The dependent variables are the presumed effects or consequences of the manipulation of the independent variables. In this study, the dependent variables are men‟s participation in extramarital relationships and consequences of getting involved e.g. risk of divorce (if wife knows) and risk of acquiring STD and HIV/AIDS. 3.4 The description of the Study Site The study site for this research project was Ibadan North Local Govt. Council Area, which is made up of twelve wards. Each of these wards is made up of communities and areas. The list of the wards and their communities were as follows: Ward 1: Beere, Kannike, Agbadagbudu, Oke-Are, Odo-Oye. Ward 2: Ode-Oolo, Inalende, Oniyanrin and Oke Oloro. Ward 3: Adeoyo, Yemetu, Oke-Aremo, and Isale-Alfa. Ward 4: Itu taba; Idi-Omo, Oje-Igosun, Kube, Oke-Apon, Abenla, Aliwo/Total Garden and NTA area. Ward 5: Bashorun, Oluwo, Ashi, Akingbola, Ikolaba, and Gate. Ward 6: Has only one large community-“Sabo Area”. Ward 7: Oke-Itunu, Coca-cola, and Oremeji Areas. Ward 8: Sango and Ijokodo Areas. Ward 9: Mokola, Ago Tapa and Premier Hotel Areas. Ward 10: Bodija, Secretariat, Awolowo, Obasa and Sanusi. Ward 11: Samonda, Polytechnic, and University of Ibadan Areas. Ward 12: Agbowo, Bodija Market, Oju Irin, Barika and Iso Pako, Lagos/Ibadan Express road. Ibadan North Local Government is one of the Local Governments in Oyo state and was th created by the federal military government of Nigeria on 27 September, 1991. This Local Government was carved out of the defunct Ibadan Municipal Government along with others. The components of the Local Government cover area between Beere roundabout through Oke-Are to Mokola, Oke Itunu and Ijokodo. The other components are areas from Beere roundabout to Gate, Idi –Ape to Bashorun and up to Lagos/Ibadan expressway, Secretariat, Bodija, University of Ibadan and Agbowo areas (Olusegun, 2001). The Secretariat of the local Government is presently and temporarily accommodated at Quarter 87 at Government reserved Area at Agodi but the headquarters of the Local Government is Bodija. Ibadan North Local Government is bounded by other Local 67 Governments. In the North, it is bounded by Akinyele Local Government Council. In the West by Ido Local Government Council, Ibadan South West and also Ibadan South East Local Government Councils and bounded in the East by Ibadan North East and Lagelu Local Governments respectively (Olusegun, 2001). Ibadan North Local Government Council Area has a population of 306,364 people. The male made up of 152,608 people while the female population was 153,756 people (National population census 2006). The Local Government consists of Multi-Ethnic nationalities such as the Igbos, Edos, the Urhbos, Itsekiris, Ijaws, Hausas, and the Fulanis and foreigners who are from Europe, America, Asia, and other parts of the world but predominately dominated by the Yorubas. Majority of the population of Ibadan North Local Government are in private sector. They are mainly traders and artisans. A good number of their workers are civil servants who live predominantly around Bodija Estate, Agbowo, Sango, Mokola, the University of Ibadan and the Polytechnic Ibadan. There are six major markets in this local government council; they are Bodija market, Sango, Mokola, Sabongeri market, Gege and Ijokodo/Gbaremu Markets. Thousands of people patronize these markets on daily basis irrespective of their local government origin. Some people (traders) travel from outside Ibadan and other states to buy and sell in these markets (Olusegun, 2001). There are many Health centres and Clinics in the L G A., major one is the Adeoyo General Hospital owned by the state government. It has a maternity centre, Dispensary, Environment Health Unit, EPI Unit and Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) section. The second and biggest health institution in this area is the University college Hospital (UCH), Orita-Mefa. These two Health institutions conduct various aspect of both primary and secondary Health care Delivery Programme. Figure 2 below is a Survey Map showing Ibadan North Local Government Area with its community set up and boundaries. 68 Figure 2: Map of Ibadan North Local Government Area. 3.5 Study Population The study population was a group of individual married men in various trades and occupation residing within Ibadan North Local Government Area. 3.6 Sample size and Sampling procedure (i.) Sample size calculation In determining the sample size, the proportion of married men in Ibadan North Local Government needed to be known. Hence the records from the National Population Census were sought. The available data were: (a.) Total number of Males in Oyo State =2,802,432 69 (b.) Total number of Males in Ibadan North LGA = 152,608 (c.) Total number of married men in Oyo State =958,298 (d.) „Estimated‟total numbers of married men in Ibadan North LGA = Not given. (Based on National Population Census 2006) -Courtesy of National Population Commission, Zonal headquarter, Ibadan. Hence projection figure would be used since numbers of married men in Ibadan North LGA was not given. Therefore: Let the proportion of married men in Ibadan North LGA (projection figure) be 50% (i.e.0.5) 2 Using the following formular N = Z (Pq) 2 d _ . (Akinsola, 2005) Where N = Sample size (i.e. No. of Subjects). Z = Confidence level at 95% which is 1.96 P = Proportion of Married Men (in Ibadan North LGA). q = 1-P (best estimate of population prevalence). d = 0.05 (which represent the maximum sample error (i.e. the difference between the true population rate and the sample rate that is tolerable (Precision) - (Bamigboye, 2003). 2 Therefore applying the formula above N =Z (Pq) 2 d 2 N= 1.96 x 0.5 x 0.5 2 (0.05) N= 3.8416 x 0.25 (0.0025) N= 0.9604 0.0025 N = 384.16 (Approximate to 384 participants) N = 384 70 Sample size = 384 Married men. This was increased to 400 men to enhance validity in generalization of findings and to give allowance for any loss or attrition. ii.) Sampling procedure A visit was made to the site before the administration of instruments for familiarisation with the wards in Ibadan North Local Government. Ibadan North LGA is made up of twelve wards and twenty two communities. Therefore for easy accessibility, the twelve wards were stratified into 3 Community types. Table 3.1: Stratification into Community Types Community Type: Wards Covered: 1. Inner Core 1 , 2, 3, and 4 2. Transitional 6 , 7, 8, and 12 3. Peripheral 5, 9, 10 and 11 1.) Inner core Community type: This can be described as a geographical area located at the central or innermost parts of a city and lies within an area of key economic activity and particularly associated with social problems such as inadequate housing and poor environmental hygiene, and high levels of crime and unemployment. In this study, the communities considered to have fallen within the inner core are: Beere, Kannike, Agbadagbudu, Oke-Are, Odo-Oye, Ode-Oolo, Inalende, Oniyanrin and Oke Oloro, Adeoyo, Yemetu, Oke-Aremo, and Isale-Alfa. Others are Itu- taba, Idi- omo, Oje-Igosun, Kube, Oke-Apon, Abenla, Aliwo/Total Garden and NTA area. 2.) Transitional Community type: This is a community type or geographical area undergoing process of change in term of housing and infrastructural development but with less social problems. The following are the areas covered: Sabo area, Oke-Itunu, Coca-cola, and Oremeji area. Others are: Sango and Ijokodo area, Agbowo, Bodija market, Oju- Irin, Barika and Iso Pako, Lagos / Ibadan express road. 71 3.) Peripheral Community type: This is a community type or geographical area which lies just outside an area of key economic activity. It is usually a new residential area bordering city or a large town and with marked layouts, streets and linked access roads. In this study the communities within the peripheral community type include: Bashorun, Oluwo, Ashi, Akingbola, Ikolaba, and Gate, Mokola, Ago Tapa and Premier Hotel area, Bodija, Secretariat, Awolowo, Obasa and Sanusi,Samonda, Polytechnic, and University of Ibadan area. Table 3.2: Detailed information on „stratification‟ into Community types Community Type: Wards Areas / Communities covered : Covered: Inner Core community WarBd e e1r e, K Beere, Kannike, Agbadagbudu, Oke-Are, Odo-Oye. type : Ward 2 Ode-Oolo, Inalende, Oniyanrin and Oke Oloro. Ward 3 Adeoyo, Yemetu, Oke-Aremo, and Isale-Alfa. Ward 4 Itu taba; Idi-Omo, Oje-Igosun, Kube, Oke-Apon, Abenla, Aliwo/Total Garden and NTA area. 1. Transitional Ward 6 Has only one large community-“Sabo Area”. Community type: Ward 7 Oke-Itunu, Coca-cola, and Oremeji area. Ward 8 Sango and Ijokodo area. Ward 12 Agbowo, Bodija Market, Oju Irin, Barika and Iso - Pako, Lagos/Ibadan Express road. 2. Peripheral Ward 5 Bashorun, Oluwo, Ashi, Akingbola, Ikolaba, and Community type: Gate. Ward 9 Mokola, Ago Tapa and Premier Hotel area. Ward 10 Bodija, Secretariat, Awolowo, Obasa and Sanusi. Ward 11 Samonda, Polytechnic, and University of Ibadan area. First of all, the twelve wards in Ibadan North LGA were listed out to show where each of the ward belongs in term of their community type using the map of the local government (See Figure 2, above). Each community type consists of four wards (See Tables 3.1 and 3.2 above). Out of this number, two wards were randomly selected using balloting from each community type. 72 Two wards from „Inner Core‟, two wards from „Transitional‟ and two wards were randomly selected from „Peripheral community type‟ to make a total of six in all. Table 3.3: Numbers of communities randomly selected through balloting S/N Randomly selected No. of Communities in No.of Communities - each ward. randomly selected wards I n n e r - core Comm. Type: 1. Ward 1 4 2 2. Ward 3 4 2 Total = TwoWards Total = 8 Total = 4 Transitional Comm. Type: 1. Ward 8 2 1 2. Ward 12 6 3 Total= Two Wards Total = 8 Total = 4 Peripheral Comm. type: 1. Ward 5 4 2 2. Ward 9 3 2 Total= Two Wards Total = 7 Total = 4 Above table shows the total number of communities in each of the randomly selected wards and number of communities eventually selected by simple randomization through balloting. Earlier, before final selection of samples (respondents) into the study, the men presented by the community leaders were questioned on their marital status in order to identify those that were married among them before selecting them to participate in the study. Unmarried men were not selected. A total of 400 married men (samples) were selected from the communities by randomization through balloting (based on the size and numbers of communities relative 73 to each ward). For instance, in each selected community, thirty three (33) married men were randomly selected, except in ward 8 where thirty seven (37) married men were selected because the community was very large. Hence in each ward where two (2) communities have been randomly selected sixty six (66) married men (samples) were randomly selected, except in ward 12 where ninty nine (99) married men were selected because three (3) communities were randomly selected there (see Table 3.4 below). Table 3.4: Communities with the numbers of married men finally selected by randomization Note: Twelve communities were randomly selected out of a total number of twenty three Six randomly Total Total No. No. of married men S/No. selected wards numbers of Commun- (subjects) randomly of Commun- -ities finally selected (based on the -ities in each selected from size and number of ward. each ward. communities selected from each ward). A. Inner Core : = 4 1. Ward 1 4 2 66 2. Ward 3 4 2 66 B. Transitional =4 Comm. : 3. Ward 8 2 1-(large 37 community) 4. Ward 12 6 3 99 C. Peripheral Comm. : =4 5. Ward 5 4 2 66 6. Ward 9 3 2 66 GRAND TOTAL 23 12 400 men communities in the whole local government area. Hence four communities were randomly selected through balloting in each community type. 74 (iii.) Sampling Technique A 3-stage sampling technique was used to select 400 married men from workplaces in six of the twelve wards in the LGA. The sample was chosen following these steps: 1.) The first stage was the random selection of six wards out of twelve wards through balloting (which form 50% of the total number of wards in the local council area). 2.) The second stage was the selection by simple randomization (through balloting) a certain number of communities in each randomly selected wards which was used as a sample frame. (Since each ward is made up of several numbers of communities and all of them could not be selected.) 3.) The third stage was the final selection by simple randomization certain number of subjects (married men) from each ward, based on the size and number of communities relative to each ward (See Table 3.4 above). 3.7.1. INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION. Qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection were used. These include: 1. Focus Group Discussion Guide (FGD Guide) 2. Semi – Structured Questionnaires. (1.) FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE ( FGD GUIDE ) In this study; FGD Guide was used. The FGD Guide was drawn based on the objectives set for this study and questions were drawn in a way that could elicit discussion among the participants. It is formulated as a series of sampled open – ended questions. Some of these questions have probing characteristics and were asked at intervals. This FGD Guide was divided into four sections: Section I carried a question that assessed the relationship that exist between occupation / working environment and married men‟s involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. Section II contained a lot of questions which tried to obtain in–depth information on the socio- cultural factors that influence extramarital sexual practice. While Section III carried a few questions that addressed the issue of risk associated with extramarital sexual behaviour and finally Section IV contained only two questions that focused on issue of perceptions (by participants) on susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs). 75 (2.) SEMI -STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES Another instrument that was used for data collection was semi structured questionnaires drawn to elicit information from the participants according to the objectives set for the study. The questionnaire was divided into six major sections (including section on „socio- demographic/personal data). Each section has sub-sections. Section I contained questions that focused on personal data of the respondents. Section II was made up of three (3) Sub - Sections viz: Sub-section A consisted of series of questions that assessed the influence of Occupation and the working environment of respondents. Sub-section B contained series of sample questions that assessed social-cultural factors that could influence extramarital sexual behaviour, while sub-section C contained questions that addressed the issue of sexual behavior and Extramarital relations. Section III of the questionnaire contained questions that evaluated perceptions of respondents for risk factors associated with extramarital sexual behaviour and finally, Section IV consisted of questions on issue pertaining to respondents‟ susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infection. (STIs) 3.7.2. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE Data for this study were collected through the use of the following: (1) Focus Group Discussion (FGD). (2) Semi – Structured Questionnaires. (1.) FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION – Data for this study were collected using “Focus Group Discussants”. These were group of people brought together as representatives of the target population to talk about key topics. They were residents of the study area whose consents were sought before participating in the group discussion. a.) Selection of participants into FGD Initially, the investigator had reached out to the community leaders in each of the community selected for the study. Through these community leaders, adequate numbers of married men were constituted for the focus group discussion. Individuals were conveniently selected in a systematic way. Every two persons presented (by the key informants or community leaders) were randomly selected to participate in the 76 focus group discussion (FGD). Within each of the three community types, two groups were constituted, each consisting of 8 married men and the constitution was based on the criteria of age and number of years already spent in marriage (i.e year of marriage). For each FGD group, eight married men were selected. Efforts were made to select participants who were having roughly the same or similar socio-demographic data in a way that their age, year of marriage and sexual experiences facilitated free discussion because if their backgrounds were not similar, some participants may find it difficult to feel comfortable and speak honestly about the topic being discussed. In all, 48 married men were selected and participated in the six FGD conducted in the LGA of study. All the respondents were males (married men), mostly of age between 20 and above 55 years. The respondents were grouped into „Young adults‟ (20-35 years); and „Middle age‟ (36-55years) respectively. Less than one third of the FGD participants had post secondary school education, while majority of the participants had basic elementary education. Of these, 65% were self employed. Few of them were from polygamous setting. b.) FGD Sessions Before the commencement of the discussion, an address was given to participants. They were assured that the programme would not take much of their time. Aside this, they were told that snacks and beverages were available for them. In addition, they were also assured that each individual would be given a small token for their transport fares back to their respective places. The moderator then recorded the personal data for each member of the discussion group in a form. This consists of the age, religion, and marital status, year of marriage and occupation and tribe. Although, a question guide was provided for the moderator, but the discussion was conducted in an informal manner, and very interestingly enough as to motivate the members to speak and respond to each other, rather than following a strict question and answer format. Hence the FGD Guide was used as a tool just to ensure that all the relevant aspects of the topic were discussed. A tape recorder and a writing material with paper considered very important during each discussion meeting to record responses and information given by the participants. To avoid disappointment, an extra tape-recorder was made to be on stand in case the one being used develops some faults. 77 c.) Procedure Six FGD sessions were held in the LGA (two in each community type). Each session lasted between 45minutes and 1 hour. The field team consisted of a moderator, rapporteur and an observer. The moderator asked questions and guided the discussion while rapporteur‟s role includes taking note on what the group members say and how they respond. The translator (who is the investigator) ensured that the question guide was adequately translated into Yoruba language and interpreted to the group by the moderator. Two FGDs were organized per day to allow for post session meetings. The procedure took the research team three days to cover selected communities in the LGA. d.) Question guide or FGD Guide To guide the discussion, a question guide was developed from research questions. This simple tool consisted of a list of simple open–ended questions. The group moderator uses follow up questions to encourage participants to say more on specific topics, especially if their comments were not clear enough. e.) Sites for FGDs In consultation with the community leaders, the research team identified comfortable places within each of the three community types where the participants held their discussion freely and honestly on equal relationship. Hence each meeting was held and arranged in a quiet place. The sitting arrangement was in semi-circular form in such that the participants were facing each other and there were eye contact. 78 Table 3.5: Sites chosen for FGD at Ibadan North LGA. Serial Ward Group FGD Area chosen Communinty type: No. of No. Participants. 1. Ward 1 Group A Oke Are, Ibadan Inner Core 8 2. Ward 3 Group B Yemetu, Ibadan Inner Core 8 3. Ward 8 Group C Sango, Ibadan Transition 8 4. Ward 12 Group D Bodija, Ibadan Transition 8 5. Ward 5 Group E Basorun, Ibadan Peripheral 8 6. Ward 9 Group F Mokola, Ibadan Peripheral 8 Total 6 Wards 48 (2.) SEMI – STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES. The second instrument designed for data collection in this study was semi- structured Questionnaires. Four hundred copies of questionnaires were printed and were distributed to cover the three community types located within the study site. Training hired research assistants. Adequate training was arranged and conducted for the hired „Research Assistants‟ by the researcher to ensure that they had good understanding of the instrument prior to commencement of data collection. The training focused on the objectives and importance of the study, the study design, and the importance of collecting valid data, sampling process, how to secure respondents‟ informed consent,and basic interviewing skills. Administration of Questionnaires The researcher interpreted the questionnaires to the research assistants so as to help the participants to understand the contents and ensured that little or no mistake is made when answering the questions. Both the researcher and the research assistants did the 79 administration of questionnaires to married men whom their marital statuses were investigated and confirmed to be truly married. The questionnaires were administered during the daytime and at a convenience of each participant in various communities, motor parks and wards that has been randomly selected. 3.8. VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT Several measures were taken to ensure the validity of the instrument. The instrument went through different stages of pre-testing. First in-house assessment of the instrument was done among experts in the fields of Reproductive Health in Health Promotion and Education, College of Medicine to ensure face and content validity. The necessary corrections were made to improve the instrument. Prior to its use, the semi-structured questionnaire used was pre-tested among married men in Ibadan North East LGA, Ibadan. The research instrument was again reviewed and necessary corrections were made before the questionnaires were administered. 3.9 RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT The total numbers of forty draft questionnaires were administered to the respondents who were married men in Ibadan North East during pre-test. Same numbers of questionnaires were collected from the respondents, cutting across social demographic characteristics. The findings of the pre-test were used to further scrutinized and reset the items in the instrument for necessary adjustment for the main study. The instrument also went through measures of internal consistency with the use of Cronbach‟s alpha coefficient analysis to confirm its reliability. This is a model of internal consistency, based on the average inter-item correlation. Any result showing a correlation coefficient greater than 0.05 is said to be reliable. In this study the result was 0.07, which is greater than 0.05, thereby confirming its high degree of reliability. The questionnaires was written in English but was translated to Yoruba language for participants that were from Yoruba land and were not educated for better understanding. 3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION The following measures were given consideration in the course of data collection: 1. Assurance of voluntary participation by respondents. 2. Study participants were duly informed about the objectives of the study, benefits of participation (such as compensation for participation e.g. given Snacks and Drinks, and 80 giving them some tokens as transport fares) and inconveniences associated with enrolling for the study -such as their time consuming. 3. Assurance of confidentiality. 4. An informed consent was given to each participant before the commencement of the study. 5. The informed consent was fully endorsed by each participant and the interviewer also signed with date (The main criterion for inclusion in the study is that a respondent gave his consent to participate in the study). 6. Information provided by research participants was safeguarded. 7. The research assistants, during recruitment were informed about the precautions that would be needed to safeguard the data collected. 8. Eligible participants who decided not to take part in the study were not coerced. 9. All identifications were removed from the questionnaires. 10. Research questionnaires were preserved through out the period of the study. 3.11 DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS (a.) Data Collection through FGD Guide 1.) Proper Storage of information: Focus Group Discussion was recorded in Yoruba but was transcribed and translated back into English Language. 2.) The transcribed texts were analyzed using thematic approach. (b.) Data Collected through Semi -Structured Questionnaire Validated questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents using an exit- interview approach. 1.) The investigator and other two research assistants checked the data collected through questionnaires each day to make sure that the questionnaires were well filled. Averagely, 30-40 questionnaires were filled daily. 2.) The 400 questionnaires that were correctly filled by (both the research assistants and educated participants) were sorted and processed. 3.) Each questionnaire was typed and its data was entered into the computer. 4.) The data collected were edited, analyzed using descriptive (i.e mean) and inferential (i.e. Chi-square) statistical analysis by using SPSS (Version 15.0) statistical package. 5.) Finally, information obtained were summarized and presented in tables and charts for better understanding. 81 3.12 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The study focused on the predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour among married men in Ibadan North LGA. Firstly, the sample size for the study may be too small and may not be enough to be used to generalize for all married men in Nigeria. Secondly, the secrecy in nature attached to extramarital sexual practices posed challenges, as some respondents were unwilling to provide some information required by the researcher during the pretest because of fear of molestation and efforts to protect their reputation. However, efforts were made to reduce this challenge by assuring the respondents of confidentially on all information provided, and participation in this study was voluntary. It was however assumed that all the information given by the participants were honest which form the basis of the findings of this study. 82 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS SECTION ONE: 4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents The Socio-Demographic characteristics of the respondents are presented in the Table 4.1.1. All the respondents were males. Majority, 97.5% of them remained married, while 2.3% were married but separated and 0.3 % was divorced men, mostly of age between 20 and above 55 years. The respondents were grouped into „Young adults‟ (20-35 years); „Middle age‟ (36-55years) and „Old age‟ (55years and above) respectively. Less than half of the respondents 169 (42.3%) were Young adults, followed by 209 (52.3%) respondents who were Middle age group; while just 22 (5.5%) of the respondents were in the class of Old age group with a mean age of 38.8 (SD ±8.7 years). About half, 50.5% of the respondents were Christians and a large majority, 89.3% were Yorubas. Majority (45.0%) of the respondents had secondary education while about a quarter, 25.3% had tertiary education. A large majority, 73.8% were in monogamous setting while 26.2% were in polygamous family. More than thirty nine percent (157) of sampled married men in Ibadan North LGA were commercial drivers (45% of these drivers operate city commercial bus, while 35% of them drive taxi cab in the city, and 20% drive inter-city commercial bus), this group is followed by 95 (23.8%) artisans and 85 (21.3%) who were traders. On Smoking and drinking habit, almost one-fifth of the population, (18.4%) of the respondents smoke cigarettes while the rest 306 (76.5%) did not. More than one third, 145 (36.3%) of sampled married men in Ibadan North Local Government Area were taken alcoholic beverages, out of these, 48 (33.1%) cared for Larger beers, 36 (24.8%) cared for Stouts, while 25 (17.2%) took tonic wines and 18 (12.4%) desired in taking native-concortions in wine preparations (Seepe) to relieve back pains and for treatment of piles. Highlights of socio-demographic characteristics are presented in the Tables 4.1.1 and figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 below respectively. 83 TABLE 4.1.1: Social-demographic characteristics of respondents Particulars: Frequency Percentage (%) Marital status Remained Married 390 97.5 Married but separated 09 2.3 Divorced 01 0.3 Ethnic origin Yoruba 357 89.3 (Tribe) Igbo 23 5.8 Hausa 06 1.5 Fulani 01 0.3 Others 11 2.8 No response 02 0.5 Christianity 202 50.5 Religion Islam 198 49.5 Monogamous 295 73.8 Type of Marriage Polygamous 105 26.2 Tertiary educat ion 101 25.3 Secondary education 180 45.0 Educational status Primary education 105 26.2 No formal education 14 3.5 Farming 06 1.5 Clerical job 14 3.5 Driving: -City Taxi cab drivers (35%) -City commercial bus (45%) 157 39.3 Occupation -Inter–state commercial bus (20%) Artisan 95 23.8 Trading 85 21.3 Teaching 20 5.0 Health Worker 10 2.5 Banking/Finance 09 2.3 Other business not mentioned 04 1.0 N=400 84 50.0 40. 0 30.0 20. 0 10.0 0. 0 20-35yrs. 36-54yrs. 5 5yrs.-above Age group of respondentssssssss‟ reRrerespondents OooofREspondents Figure 3: Histogram showing Respondents' Age group distributionon RErererrespondents 85 Respondents' number of spouse(s) 9.2% 2% 12.2% 73.7% One Wife Two wives Three wives More than three wives Figure 4: Pie chart showing respondents‟ number of spouse(s) 86 80 70 60 50 40 76.6% 30 20 10 18.4% 5% 0 Figure 5: Bar chart showing Participants'responses to smoking habit 87 60 50 40 30 52.3% 20 36.3% 10 11.4% 0 Figure 6: Bar chart showing Participants‟ responses to alcohol consumption 88 4.2. Findings from the study In this study, six (6) focus group discussions were conducted among married men in six different communities in Ibadan North Local Government Area (LGA) to explore opinions, perception, ideas and attitudes of sampled participants on factors which predispose married men to perpetrate extramarital sex. Moreover, the respondent‟s perceptions and beliefs about the threats of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV/ AIDS were assessed. In addition to the above, four hundred questionnaires were also produced. The questions covered the following: Sexual behaviour and extramarital relations, the participants‟ Occupation and working environment; socio-cultural factors influencing extramarital sexual behaviour, and lastly assessment of participants‟ perception of risk factors associated with extramarital sexual behaviour. The findings from this study are presented in this chapter. They are organised into qualitative and quantitative findings. Each instrument was divided into various sections and sub-sections. The report of findings is discussed one after the other following the arrangement of the themes under each section and sub- sections. SECTION TWO: PREVALENCE OF EXTRAMARITAL INVOLVEMENT 4.2.1 Extramarital Affairs; why getting involved? The FGD participants were posed with this question: In your opinion, what do you think are the main reasons why married men go out with other women outside their matrimonial home? In their response to this question, the respondents were of the opinion that „Lack of contentment and covetousness by the man, unsubmissiveness of the wife and pre-marital sexual habit (the number of ladies such men must have been involved with before they were married) were suggested as part of the causes or factors responsible for extramarital affairs. Here are their responses: Respondent 5 (Group C) said: “What I can say is that lack of contentment and covetousness is the factor responsible for this kind of behaviour. You see, when a man is not contented with what God has given to him, he would engage in adultery! In addition, there is no faith anymore and that is why there is lack of contentment”. Respondent 3 (Group B) supported the above contributor. His words: 89 “Lack of contentment and covetiousness among the couple today are the causes of extramarital affairs. Most men cannot be satisfied just because they do not have self discipline. And most men do it out of influence from society”. Respondent 2: (from Group A) reacted this way: “As far as I am concerned, a frequent marital dispute, orchestrated by the wife‟s nagging behaviour at home, is one of the reasons why some men engage in extramarital sex”. Respondent 1 (Group E) in his own contribution said: “Unsubumissiveness by the wife at home is point number one! If the woman is not submissive to the husband, there is no way the husband will tolerate her, no matter how beautiful she may be. Another point is nagging behaviour of the woman (wife) at home. Let me analyze my points. Assuming the wife is a graduate and a degree holder and lucky to get a good job that earned her fabulous amount every month than the husband who is just a petty trader or a school teacher in a primary school, she may feel high and disrespect the husband because of her affluence. The husband will surely go out, because most men that go out, from my personal experience, do so not from their personal interest but because their wife is giving them problem at home. I think it is not that they really wanted to do so. I know of a particular man that rented a house for his wife because of her nagging attitude, though, he did not divorce her but he rented a house for her and the children, so he goes there occasionally to meet them. So, if you find men that go after women outside wedlock, it is not that they really wanted to but may be they were not satisfied with the conduct of their wives at home. May be the man told his wife or asked his wife to do this or that consistently and the woman (wife) refuses, this response from the wife may drive the husband to go out after another woman. That is, the man may think that what he cannot get from his wife at home, he could get it from somebody else. Failure of the woman to respect and accept the authority of her husband over her will not bring peace to reign in the home”. Respondent 3 (Group F) said: “The pre- marital sexual life before marriage is a contributory factor. If the man was a womanizer and the type that keep girl friends before he got married and has 90 not changed his life pattern, there is no way he won‟t extend such sexual behaviour to his marital life. He may come across his old female friends and then re-establish relationship with them”. The same opinion was shared by another respondent from Group D (Respondent 4) he said: “Out of those things that make married men to be involved in extramarital sexual behaviour this present time is that probably the husband, before he got married, perhaps has lot of ladies whom they have earlier on dated one another or has been moving together as partners. He may have had about four of such ladies; the wife too may have had boy friends about three to four before she got married. So, after getting married, if she is the type of wife that belong to a group of women who says „one husband (man) cannot fill up a cupboard‟ before she got married and become a wife, now that she is a married woman, such a person would also not be contented, likewise a man that had been moving with about three to four young ladies, before, now after marrying a wife, he cannot be contented or satisfied. No matter what the wife may be doing to please him, he would still be looking out and have extramarital affairs because such habit might die hard, therefore extending to their marriage life”. Quantitative findings: 4.2.1 Respondents‟ Sexual behaviour and participation in extramarital relationship. When the respondents were asked if they had ever had sexual relationship with another woman or a lady aside their home based wives, 148 (37.0%) of them indicated that they had had sexual relationship outside their matrimonial home, while 252 (63.0%) had not. Moreso, out of those respondents who had ever had sexual intercourse with another woman outside their matrimonial home, thity two (21.6%) of them reported that they are still having women or ladies whom they relate with on friendly basis (See Table 4.2.1 below). 91 Table 4.2.1: Sexual behaviour of respondents and their participation in extramarital relationship. Statement No % 1. Have you had sexual relationship with another woman or a lady aside your home based wife? (N=400) Options: 1.) Yes 148 37.0 2.) No 252 63.0 2. If Yes, presently, is there any woman or a lady whom you are relating with on friendly basis? (n=148) Options: 1.)Yes 32 21.6 2.) No 116 78.4 4.2.2. Respondents‟ reasons for involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. Amongst the reasons given by the respondents for creating interest in friendly relationship with women outside their matrimonial home were as follow: such relationships usually meet various social and psychological needs (8.1%), excited feeling during such sexual experience cannot be quantified (20.3%), because of sexual fulfilment, friendship, and fun of it (10.1%), most woman friends do assist men financially in time of need (12.2%), because the woman whom I‟m relating with needs my financial help too (6.8%), but majority (42.5%) of the respondents gave no reason for their involvement. When the respondents were asked about the exact period they usually meet to have sexual contact with their woman friends outside, 27.1% reported that they meet during the time when wife goes to her work, and 23.1% reported that they usually meet when wife travels, while 47.4 % of them meet their woman friends after closing from work at a hotel. When the respondents were asked about their reason(s) for cheating on their wife/wives, the followings were their responses: my wife has not given birth to a male child (6.1%), I did it to please myself (to satisfy my sexual desire) (13.5%), my wife always travelled and doesn‟t care for me (18.9%), my wife is old now, and I needed a young lady to fill the gap (6.8%), and the need for sexual variety, taste and sexual orientation (40.5%). Finally, looking at the issue of perpetration in extramarital affairs from general perspective, the following were respondents‟ view about the reasons why some married men engage in extramarital sexual relationship: inability to maintain a satisfying emotional relationship with spouse over a long period of time (25.5%), a need for sexual variety (28.3%), loss of 92 passion, love, care and desire that existed in the beginning of marital relationship (12.8%), apathy towards spouse at home (15.5%), financial problems (7.8%), problem of giving birth to a male child (7.8%), need to re-experience the intense level of passion and the feeling of been in love (1.0%), and all of the above (1.5%). See Table 4.2.2 below for more details. 93 Table 4.2.2: Respondents‟ reasons for their involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour S/N Statement No. % 1. (n=148) Reason(s) for creating interest in friendly relationship with woman outside, aside wife at home: .Because such relationships usually meet various social and psychological needs. 12 8.1 .Excited feeling during such sexual experience cannot be quantified. 30 20.3 .I have interest because of sexual fulfilment, friendship, and fun of it. 15 10.1 .Most woman friends do assist men financially in time of need. 18 12.2 .Because the woman whom I‟m relating with needs my financial help too. 10 6.8 No response 63 42.5 2. When do you usually meet to have Sexual contact with woman friends outside? (Explain ……) (n=148) Various explanations given by respondents are:  Yes, during the time my wife goes to work. 40 27.1  When my wife travels. 34 23.1  We usually meet after closing from work at a hotel. 70 47.4 No response 04 2.4 3 . Why cheating on wife to have sexual relationship with another woman? (n=148)  My wife has not given birth to a male child. 09 6.1  I did it to please myself (to satisfy my sexual desire). 20 13.5  My wife always travelled and doesn‟t care for me. 28 18.9  My wife is old now, and I needed a young lady to fill the gap. 10 6.8  The need for sexual variety and sexual orientation 60 40.5 No response 21 14.2 4. Looking at this issue from the general perspective, what do you think are the reasons why married men engage in extramarital sexual relations? N=400 -Inability to maintain a satisfying emotional relationship; with spouse over a long period of time. 102 25.5 -A need for sexual variety 113 28.3 -Loss of passion, love, care and desire that existed in the beginning of marital relationship. 51 12.8 -Apathy towards spouse at home 62 15.5 -Financial problems 31 7.8 -Problem of giving birth to a male child. 31 7.8 -Need for re-experiencing the intense level of passion and the feeling of been in love. 04 1.0 No response 06 1.5 94 SECTION THREE: INFLUENCE OF OCCUPATION AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT ON EXTRAMARITAL INVOLVEMENT Majority of the participants agreed that Occupation or where somebody worked could influence perpetration in extramarital sexual behaviour. FGD participants were asked to mention various ways in which Occupation or working environments could influence perpetration in extramarital sexual behaviour. Among various ways mentioned include any job or occupation which exposes a person to frequent transfer and travelling, thus making such an individual to come in contact with opposite sexual partners e.g. military or para- military officers like the Police, Air force, FRSC corp members etc. Others were occupations that provide such social services as film acting, music, hoteling, food vendor, lecturing, banking and finance, to mention a few. The followings are the comments of some of the FGD participants in response to the question asked: Respondent 2 (Group E): In his reaction to the question he said: “People that engage in jobs that involve frequent transfer – leaving their wives at home were commonly found to be in that kind of sexual relationship with another woman. That is point number one! Then, those who form the habit of lodging in hotel whenever they travel on a business trip can be influenced to engage in extramarital sex as well.” When the Moderator asked him to explain how? He continued further and said: “When a person travel on a business trip and there is no opportunity to take his wife with him. If he goes every month, and each time, he spends about four days, or a week and the only place he can sleep or lodge is in a hotel. At a place like that, he could interact with many faces, many people who come to relax there, both male and females. Sooner he would get friends. The influences of friends and women who attend to him could make him to yield and gradually he would start doing the thing. Even if he normally stay for 3 days before, as he begin to enjoy the relationship, he can then begin to extend his stay in the hotel for 5 days or a week before he goes back to meet his wife at home.” He was also supported by other two colleagues from the same group who spoke extensively on the same topic. Respondent 3 (Group E) said: “Occupation and area where one is working can influence a person‟s sexual behaviour to the extent of making him or her to get involve in extramarital sexual 95 activities. A driver, who work in a company and have to travel very often to far places away from his family base to deliver goods or manufactured items to various distributors, he would in no doubt be lodging in a hotel for his trips, since there is no other accommodation available for him. Exposure to hotel life and loneliness would influence him to have woman friends in those places he travels to. A bar man who work in a hotel would work with other people (young men and ladies) – who get themselves exposed to many customers. Some big girls would come and relax and parade themselves before business men who have come to lodge after having their business deals and meetings. There is no way you will work in a hotel either as a man or a woman that you would not be exposed to social life and sexual embarrassment. Such kind of exposure can lead a man to learn how to make friends with opposite sex partners.” Respondent 4 (Group E) commented thus:- “The former speakers had said it all. The job and working environment can influence extramarital sex. Let me cite this as an example, most of our uniform men i.e. military officers, policemen, and prison staff, immigration officers, FRSC members who get transferred very often are at high risk of engaging in extramarital sexual behaviour. When they get transferred, initially, they lodged in hotels before they finalized their accommodation arrangements. During these periods of staying in hotels, they can perpetrate in extramarital sexual affairs with another woman. Since there would be no opportunity for them to take their wives/ family members with them (at these period until they get accommodation), some are even in the habit of staying alone, leaving their wives and family members in their former station, promising to be visiting them at intervals. I personally have seen a police officer who has women friends nearly in every town or in every state where he was transferred to and those women friends have at least a child for him.” Participants from other communities also spoke on influence of Occupation and working environment on extramarital involvement. These are their views: Respondent 1 (Group A) argued that Occupation or the environment where one is working could either influence ones' life positively or negatively. “Somebody who is working in a Bank and gradually rose to become the manager would in no doubt be working in a cool office, living in a comfortable apartment, have a fine car and would be able to take good care of his family. Why? It is 96 because he finds himself in an occupation that is lucrative. However, if the man is a womanizer, with the position he finds himself, his monthly income and his working environment, this could influence him to perpetrate in extramarital sex. Clients- both men and women would be coming to him for financial assistance or for other grants. So it depends! But as I have said, if that individual is a womanizer there is no doubt, he would get himself involved in extramarital sex.” Respondent 3 (Group B) also contributed thus: “Just as other colleagues have said, the type of job one is doing or where such a job is been carried out can influence that person to practice extramarital relations. It is a common thing in our higher institutions of learning to see young ladies who are students to be parading themselves around the offices of their male lecturers either to sign a course registration form or for other purposes relating to their academic stuff. But most of these ladies dressed to stimulate the interest of their male lecturers, majority of who are already married men and put them at risk of perpetrating in extramarital sexual relations. You will see the female students dressed leaving their chest exposed, wearing dresses that actually reveal the shape of their body for men to appreciate their beauty. Man is affected by what he sees; after all he is not a wood! Many lecturers have falling victims in the hands of these female students by inflicting them with HIV infection or other Sexually Transmitted Diseases.” Respondent 1 (Group F) responded in this way: “Thank you sir, ones occupation can lead a person (either a man or a woman) to get involved in extramarital sexual behaviour. Take for example a woman, who is selling food and beer at a motor park, she could be influenced to get involved in extramarital sexual relationship. She is exposed to various customers including commuter drivers and passengers. The working environment and the items she‟s selling attract men of various characters to come to her shop. Many drivers love to drink wines after eating. Some of them are womanizers as well. There could be some kind of interactions; after all they eat, drink and relax in her shop. Many of them could approach her and ask her for sex if she is very beautiful and decent”. 97 Respondent 2 (Group D) said: “Occupation and area where one is working can influence a person to get involve in extramarital sexual activities. There is no way you will work in a hotel either as a man or a woman that you would not be exposed to social life and sexual embarrassment. Such kind of exposure can lead a man to learn how to make friends with opposite sex partners.” Respondent 5 (Group F) have this to say on the issue under discussion. “I just want to support the other participants who had spoken that it is true that occupation and where a person works have a lot of influence on the sexual behaviour of a man. Many medical doctors and nurses in the hospitals relate freely, as some of them are usually fond of each other. Some married nurses go out with doctors, telling their husbands at home that they are going on night duty in the hospital. Likewise, musicians do engage in extramarital affairs because they perform social functions. They engaged in week-end social activities – playing at various social engagements. The work they do and the environment where they perform bring them closer to women whom they could pick later to become their woman friends.” However, Respondent 7 (Group C) has a contrary opinion in the way he has looked at the issue under discussion. According to him: “In my opinion, I will say that you may belong to a particular occupation that provide social services and yet not getting involved in extramarital sex. It depends on individual. If you know what you are doing, no matter the job you engages yourself upon and the environment where you are doing the job, you will not be influenced to get involved in extramarital sex if you love yourself and your wife, except you really wanted to do so. The same opinion was shared by another FGD participant, Respondent 3 (Group D) who affirmed that one‟s emotional constitution and personal interest are factors that come to play in this issue. “I may be working in a Hotel or be a musician, or a police officer, doing some social work and prone to frequent transfer yet, I may not get myself attached to any woman other than my wife. I think it is a matter of self discipline!” 98 Quantitative findings: INFLUENCE OF OCCUPATION AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT ON EXTRAMARITAL INVOLVEMENT An overwhelming majority, 89.3% were engaged in private sector of the economy while 38 (9.5%) were working in various government establishments within the state. A very few number 79 (19.8%) of them were on shifting job. In order to determine the influence of occupation and working environment on extramarital involvement, respondents were asked whether they do observe recess at their places of work and where they spend their recess. Majority, 259 (64.8%) claimed they observe recess from work, out of which 146 (56.4%) spent their recess at their places of work, 53 (20.5%) come home briefly during the time, while 15 (5.8%) observed their own recess at a girl friends‟ house and 9 (3.4%) at a Beer parlour/ palm wine joint. When the respondents were asked on the exact time they usually close from work, most of them 115 (28.8%) closed between 3.30 p.m-6.00.pm, 82 (20.5%) closed from work by 7.30 p.m, while a few 26 (6.5%) closed at 9.30 p.m. After they close from work, 39 (33.3 %) of them do not come home straightaway but usually stop over at a social club‟s house to merry with friends, 28 (23.9%) stopped at various game centres to play “Draft and Ayo- Olopon” while 15 (12.8%) usually stop over at a woman friends‟ shop (See Table 4.3.1). Finally, respondents were asked if „Occupation and working environment‟ has any influence on extramarital sexual behaviour. Seventy nine percent (316) responded in affirmative “Yes” to the question, while (74) 18.5% said “No”. When the respondents were asked to give an example of the type of job, 100 (31.6%) of them mentioned Occupations that provide such social services as film acting, music, hotelier, food vendor (etc); 75 (23.7%) of the respondents mentioned such working environments like Motor parks, Hotels, Public offices (e.g.Govt.Secretariats)- with such facilities like staff club/ restaurants, while 72 (22.8%) of the respondents cited as an example any Occupation that involve frequent travelling and leaving one‟s spouse for a long period of time (See Table 4.3.2). 99 Table 4.3.1: Nature of Occupation S/N Statements Frequency % 1. Do you do a shift job? (N=400) (1) Yes 79 19.8 (2) No 300 75.0 No Response 21 5.2 2. Do you observe recess? (N=400) 1.) Yes 259 64.8 2.) No 102 25.5 No response 39 9.8 3. If your answer is Yes, Where do you observe your recess? (n=259) 1.) Place of work 146 56.4 2.) In my house 53 20.5 3.) Girl friends‟ house 15 5.8 4.) Beer parlour / Palm wine joint 09 3.4 5.) Other places (specify)…………. 18 6.9 No response 18 6.9 4. When do you close from work? (N=400 ) 1. Between 1.30 Pm -3.00 Pm 8 4 21.0 2. Between 3.30 Pm- 6.00 Pm 115 28.8 3. Close at around 7.30 Pm 82 20.5 4. Between 8.00 Pm- 9.00 Pm 82 20.5 5. Close at around 9.30 Pm 26 6.5 No response 11 2.7 5. When you closed, do you go straight home? (N=400 ) 1.)Yes 265 66.3 2.) No 117 29.3 No response 18 4.5 6. If your answer is “No”, where do you stop before going home? (n=117) 1.) At social club‟s house 39 33.3 2.) Game centre (Draft & Ayo) 28 23.9 3.) Woman friend‟s shop 15 12.8 4.) Video/cinema spot 06 5.1 5.) Football field 02 1.7 6.) Palm wine/Beer parlor 04 3.4 7.) Cyber café 02 1.7 8.) Another Business centre 12 10.3 No response 09 7.7 100 Table 4.3.2: Influence of Occupation and working environment on extramarital sexual involvement S/N Statements Frequency % 1. D o you think Occupation and working environment can influence extramarital sexual behaviour? ( N=400) Options: 1.) Yes 316 79.0% 2.) No 74 18.5% No response 10 2.5% 2. If your answer to the above is „Yes‟, then mention which type of job? (n=316) Options: (1) Occupation that involve frequent traveling and leaving 72 22.8% the spouse for long period of time. (2) Any work that involve frequent transfer and shifting 53 16.8% of family base. (3) Working environment that has the tendency to 75 23.7% influence one‟s social life e.g. Motor parks, hotels, Secretariat and Schools. (4) Occupations that provide such social services as film- 100 31.6% acting, music, hotelier, food vendor. (etc) (5) Any job that involve shift duty or call. 16 5.1% 101 SECTION FOUR: SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR Socio-Cultural factors have been identified as one of the important factors which influence extramarital practices. Among the socio-cultural variables identified by respondents include: Problems associated with husband and wife living apart, effect of loneliness, sexual needs, cultural perspectives and beliefs, especially taboos as it relates to human reproductive health, marital disputes or quarrels and responses to the advice from friends, parents and family relations. Below are the various responses of FGD participants on each of the socio-cultural variables identified. 4.4.1. Husband and wife living apart as a factor: FGD Participants discussed at length on socio-cultural factors that could influence extramarital sexual behaviour. Among the sub-themes examined under this topic was „the problems associated with husband and wife living apart‟. When a question was raised on the dangers inherent in a couple who lives and keep distance from each other, majority of the participants argued that couples who keep some distance away from each other risk their marriages, they however condemed such living arrangements. They said it is not good because it gives room for suspicion, it reduces their love, no intimacy, it allow individual spouse to do whatever he or she likes, and it exposes each member to risk of sexual embarassment. Respondent 5 (Group E) said: “If a couple decide to live apart; it is not so good for their relationship. Firstly, it reduces their love. It can bring about suspicion, and there could be conflicts arising from misunderstanding due to distance apart. The wife could be bias towards the husband on monetary matters; she may accuse him of spending money on women in her absence. Likewise, the husband may suspect her wife of going out with another man. Where the couple lives together, they sleep together, pray together and move together, they will do things in common and there would be peace”. Some of them also observed that when a woman lives some distance away from her husband, she is not safe from sexual embarassments and that such a woman is prone to 102 unwanted pregnancies, abortions, and risks of acquiring Sexually Transmited Infections (STIs) –including HIV. Respondent 1 (Group F) said: “Both of them are exposed to sexual embarrassment. They are risking their marriage. When a woman lives in a place distanced away from her husband, she is not safe from sexual embarrassments. She is prone to unwanted pregnancies, abortions and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). There is opportunity for each of them to do whatever he or she likes. The man could also perpetrate in extramarital sex. He may mistakenly impregnate another woman. He is also prone to infections as well.” Respondent 2: (From Group C) Said: “The dangers that can be associated with distance couples are many, one of them is that they can be exposed to emotional instability- “Loneliness”; there could be sexual embarrassments; risk of accidents in a bid to travel to see the other partner, and finally, risk of acquiring sexually transmitted infection from unfaithful partner who is far away.” Respondent 2- (Group D) also observed that if a couple live in separate places away from each other, they risk their lives and not only their marital relationship. He stated as follows: “There is possibility for one of them to start engaging in anti-social activities like smoking, drinking, wandering about in the night. The husband could also be going out in the night to rub and the wife would not know about this because she is not living with him. Again, any one of them could indulge in extramarital sexual behaviour because of the opportunity of living apart. This is very dangerous for the family because if that spouse is infected, the other spouse is at high risk of being infected as well. And they could therby ruined their lives” Respondent 4 (Group B) commented thus: “Thank you sir!. One of the effects inherent in couple living apart is risk of being infected with sexually transmitted diseases. A man who lives in Lagos (and whose wife lives in Ibadan here) may have many sexual partners at Lagos. He may be infected thereafter. There is also tendencies for him to come home and infects his wife at home. It is possible for the two of them to die premature death if they were infected with HIV/AIDS!” 103 Respondent 6 (Group B)- In his own reaction, he said: “If a couple decide to live apart; it is not so good for their relationship. How can they enjoy sexual relationship? As for me, I cannot tolerate such arrangement. If you do that you expose your spouse to lions to devour him or her! Other men in town will snatch your wife or your husband away”. Quantitative findings: 4.4.1. Husband and wife living apart as a factor: When the respondents were asked if their wives were living with them here in Ibadan, only 172 (43.0%) claimed that their wives were living with them, while majority 211 (52.7%) do not have their wives living with them in Ibadan. Among the reasons given by those respondents whose wives were not residing with them (in Ibadan) were: because of wife‟s job attachment 70 (33.2%), lack of fund to rent adequate apartment in Ibadan 35 (16.6%), to avert the problem of incessant quarrels 35 (16.6%). About thirty eight percent of those respondents whose wives were not living with them do visit them where they lived while 70 (33.2%) did not because of the following reasons: she is flirting about 21 (30.0%), she is very far away 19 (27.1%), I don‟t have time 10 (14.3%), have partially separated 9 (12.9%), because we quarrelled and the dispute is yet to be settled 5 (7.14%). For other responses see Table 4.4.1 below. 104 Table 4.4.1: Problems associated with husband and wife living apart: S/ Statement Freq. % N 1 Is your wife or are your wives residing with you in Ibadan? (N=400) 1.) Yes 172 43.0 2.) No 2 1 1 5 2 . 7 No response 17 4.3 2 Those whose wife/wives are not residing together with in Ibadan, reasons why they are not living together: (n=211)  1. Because of wives‟ job attachment. 70 33.2  2. Lack of fund to rent adequate apartment in Ibadan. 35 16.6  3. To avert the problem of incessant quarrels. 35 16.6  4. I prefer separate apartment. 24 11.4  5. She doesn‟t want to move with me to Ibadan. 22 10.4  6. Other reasons (but not disclosed) 08 3.7 No response 17 8.1 3 Respondents‟ visit to wife / wives that are not residing with them. (n=211) 1.) Yes 80 37.9 2.) No 70 33.2 No response 61 28.9 4 Frequency of respondents‟visit to wife / wives (not living with them). (n=80)  1. Every month end. 25 31.3  2. Twice in a month. 19 23.7  3. Every weekend. 10 12.5  4. Anytime I have sexual desire. 09 11.3  5. Once in a while. 04 5.0  6. Twice in a week 03 3.7 No response 10 12.5 5 Why respondents do not visit wife / wives that are not living with them: (n=70) 1. Because we quarrelled and the dispute is yet to be settled. 05 7.1 1. 2. She is very far away. 19 27.1 2. 3. We have partially separated. 09 12.8 3. 4. She is flirting about. 21 30.0 4. 5. I don‟t have time. 10 14.3 5. 6. Other reasons (Not disclosed). 05 7.1 No response 01 1.4 4.4.2 Loneliness and meeting sexual needs: FGD Participants discussed very well on issue of loneliness. There are two questions asked on this sub - theme. The first question was “Supposing your wife is a business woman and had the cause to travel on a business trip and would be spending a month or two, how will you cope with your sexual urge during this long absence of your wife from home? 105 In reaction to this first question, majority of the participants reacted negatively and sharply to the issue of a wife travelling away from home for a long period of time, leaving the husband and the children at home. Here are some of the statements made by the respondents: Respondent 3 (Group D): “I can not tolerate that for my wife, to leave me for even two or three weeks. I cannot endure it” Respondent 5 (Group F): “A woman who traveled and stayed away for two or three months is not being sincere with herself. Probably she has hidden agenda. She would be exposed to the risk of sexual embarrassment by men around where she had traveled to and under heavy sexual pressure. She might be infected and bring the infection home for the husband.” Respondent 6 (Group F): “Yes! it is true. Such a woman could have a hidden agenda. She must have had appointment with another man apart from the business she had gone for. Habba! How can a woman leave her children with her husband and then travel for months under the name of a business arrangement?” Respondent 3 (Group B): “In my own, I can‟t allow my wife to travel for a long time, except we go together. A journey that will take her away for more than a week at most, could make me to start looking for woman friends to keep my company.” The second question under this sub-theme that was placed before the participants for discussion was well attended to. The question read thus: „How can you as a matured married man manage the issue of loneliness, especially if your job suddenly takes you away from home? Majority of the FGD participants from all the six locations mentioned that regular phone calls to the wife and children at home would help the man to feel at home. In addition, engaging in recreational activities, making effort to make friends with one‟s male counterparts and colleagues would reduce the stress that is attached to loneliness. Here are some of their responses: 106 Respondent 3 (Group E) said: “As far as I‟m concerned, I will try to make friends in the new environment but would not forget my children and wife at home. A married man should discipline himself. He should not allow stress to weigh him down. He should try to relate with his male counterparts, colleagues and office staff. He can attend a game centre or recreation club and relax”. Respondent 4 (Group E) as well said: "Loneliness is not easy to manage. But as a married man, one should try to cope and adapt himself to the new environment. He should always link up on the phone with his children. One should engage himself with recreational activities”. Respondent 2 (Group F) also spoke on the same issue, he said: “Regular phone calls would reduce the stress. Again, I would try to visit my family (wife and children) any time I have opportunity to do so. If it is possible, I would make arrangement as a matter of urgency to bring my family to myself.” Respondent 1(Group B) said: “Loneliness can make someone to run mad if it is not well managed. Loneliness can lead men to perpetrate in anti-social activities. The best way to manage loneliness is to create interest in recreational activities. That will remove stress that is attached to it”. Respondent 4 (Group A): Stated thus: “As far as I‟m concerned, I will try to make friends in the new environment but I would not forget my children and wife at home. I would try to be calling on them regularly on phone.” Quantitative findings: 4.4.2 Loneliness as a factor One hundred and thirty eight (34.5%) of the total population of respondents had experienced one occasion or the other when job had taken them away from home and there was no opportunity to take their wives with them. When the respondents were reacting to the question on how loneliness was managed during those periods, 35 (25.4%) of them claimed they were making regular phone calls to their wives at home, 28 (20.3%) claimed 107 that they usually strolled out together with school girls to watch films, while 20 (14.5%) of them claimed that they usually go out with friends to recreation clubs. For other responses see Table 4.4.2. Table 4.4.2: Responses of the respondents on the issue of Loneliness S/N Statement No % 1. Occasions when job took one away from home and no opportunity to take a wife or any of wives along. (N=400) (1.) Yes 138 34.5 (2.) No 262 65.5 2. How loneliness was managed on occasions when job took one away from home and no opportunity to take wife along: (n=138) Options: (1) I always go out with my friends to recreation club. 20 14.5 (2) I got myself attached to a young woman. 10 7.2 (3) I always go to a beer parlour/palm wine joint after work. 11 8.0 (5) I tried to make friends with people around including ladies. 08 5.8 (6) I make regular phone calls to my wife at home. 35 25.4 (7) I always go to the field in the evening to play games. 05 3.6 (8) I always stroll out together with school girls and young ladies to watch films. 28 20.3 (9) I keep myself at home watching TV and video. 15 10.9 (10) I always go to the cybercafé to browse. 05 3.6 (11) Other activities. 01 0.7 4.4.3 Cultural perspectives and respondents‟ beliefs on „Sexuality and reproductive health issues. Cultural perspectives and beliefs, especially taboos as it relates to human sexuality and reproductive health was one of the sub-themes discussed under socio-cultural factors by the FGD Participants. On this note, this question was asked. „When your wife is pregnant or she is breastfeeding an infant child, how would you cope to satisfy your sexual urge at those periods? 108 Respondents reacted to this question in various ways. Some said it is not good to have sex during the post- partum period and when the woman is breastfeeding because of the effect it would have on the baby who is sucking breast. Some respondents are of the opinion that there is nothing bad in having sex with wife either during pregnancy or when mother is breastfeeding. The following are some of their responses: Respondent 1(Group F) said: “Thanks you sir! On this issue, I want to say that you should study her and the month of pregnancy. Culturally after four weeks, she is ready after child birth. In Ogun state, after three weeks you can start the thing. But naturally it is after three months.” Respondent 1 (Group E), in his own reaction, stated thus: “Thanks you sir! Oga! I want to say that it is difficult because most men can‟t control their sexual urge. It is a lie to talk of a man not having sex within 3 months; during wife‟s pregnancy or when wife is breast feeding a baby, most men look out and find means of doing it. They go out to meet another woman outside!” Respondent 5 (Group E) commented thus: “I personally don‟t engage in sex with my wife when she is pregnant, but after her delivery, say about six month after the birth of the baby, I can have sex with her”. Respondent 4 (Group B) said: “With the present level of civilization now, when the wife becomes pregnant or she is nursing a baby and breast feeding a child that does not give room for excuse for the husband and wife not to have sexual intercourse. There are condoms. Do you understand my point? There are condoms that are available to be used in order to avoid pregnancy”. Respondent 5 (Group C) reacted as follows: “Medically, we might not have had one or two but we used to hear from the mouth of the pregnant women who go to Ante – Natal clinic (ANC) for ante natal care in hospital that they always asked them whether their husbands still have sexual intercourse with them, that they should please accept and co-operate with their husbands because by the time of their delivery, it would become easier (during labour) for quick and unobstructed delivery, but for those that are nursing a baby or breastfeeding a child, that men should not move near or have sex with her 109 because it appears that it has „certain short comings; however, with the use of condoms that have been introduced to people, this perfect all the short comings a little”. Respondent 2 (Group A) replied: “Eeh, if it is during the time she is nursing a baby. I am happy that we were given a seminar in the Hospital that a man and a woman should have sexual intercourse very well to assist the pregnant woman during delivery period. Em–m, they used to say that in the hospital, they used to enlighten them. As for a woman who is nursing a baby, there are certain women whom immediately their husband sex them, they become pregnant when there is no family planning. Now, there are condoms, which people refer to as “rain coats”. God has made life more comfortable because if it was not so, all the things which the Whiteman were making would not have been possible. So, in as much as these endure with men. It is in the Alquran that it is not right for a married woman to refuse her husband for a demand to have sexual intercourse. Any women who refuse to co-operate in this regard shall be punished by Allah.” Quantitative Findings: 4.4.3 Cultural perspectives and respondents‟ beliefs on „Sexuality and reproductive health issues‟. When the respondents were asked about how sexual urge was being satisfied during wife‟s pregnancy or when wife is nursing a baby, 81 (20.3%) declared that they still tried to have sexual intercourse despite their wife‟s condition, 64 (16.0%) stated that they always try to abstain from sex during those periods while 75 (18.8%) of the respondents reported going after another woman after all “man no be wood” and 30 (7.5%) stated that they have more than one wife, and that if one is pregnant they could go to other wives. More than one third 170 (42.5%) of the respondents shared the belief that a woman should not have sexual intercourse with her husband during pregnancy or when breastfeeding a baby, while 225 (56.3%) of them did not hold such belief. Only forty-eight (12.0%) of respondents reported that their wives has problem of infertility. When respondents were asked about their next cue of action if wife or any of their wives have problem of infertility, 15 (31.3%) stated that they will endure their wife‟s situation and accept their fate, 12 (25.0%) declared that they will try to keep another woman outside secretly; perhaps they could have a child through 110 her, while 10 (20.8%) stated that they will keep their wives at home, care for her but establish relationship with another woman outside (See Table 4.4.3 for details). Table 4.4.3: Cultural perspectives and respondents‟ beliefs on sexuality and reproductive health issues. /N Statement No % 1 How Sexual urge was being satisfied when wife was pregnant (N=400) Options:  I still tried to have sexual intercourse with her despite her condition (protruding belly.) 81 20.3  I always try to abstain from sex during those periods 64 16.0  I used to go after another woman after all “Man no be wood”. 75 18.8  I have more than two wives, if one is pregnant, then I go to the other wives 30 7.5  I have women friends that care for me. 80 20.0  No response 70 17.5 Do you share the2 b eli Do you share a belief that a woman should not have sexual intercourse intercourse with her with her husband during pregnancy or when breastfeeding a baby ? (N=400) a baby? Options: 1.) Yes, I believe 170 42.5 2.) No, I don‟t 225 56.3 No response 05 1.2 3 Wife/wives ever had problem with infertility? (N=400) Options: 1.) Yes 48 12.0 2.) No 300 75.0 No response 52 13.0 4 If your wife or any of your wives has problems with Infertility, what will be your next cue of action? (n=48 ) Options: 1.) I will endure her despite the situation and accept my fate. 15 31.3 2.) I will try to keep another woman outside secretly; perhaps I may have a child through her. 12 25.0 3.) I have already gotten a woman outside and same has been pregnant. 04 8.3 4.) I love my wife and I don‟t want to divorce because of infertility. 05 10.4 5.) I will keep my wife at home, care for her but establish relationship with another woman outside. 10 20.8  No response 02 4.2 5 Want to have more children when wife does not have problem with Infertility? (N=300) Options: 1.) Yes 170 56.8 2.) No 121 40.3 No response 09 2.9 4.4.4. Marital disputes or quarrels as a factor Respondents spoke at length on various factors they perceived to be the major factors or causes of marital dispute between husband and wife. Majority of the respondents were of 111 the opinion that money, misunderstanding, inability to understand each other person‟s behaviour before they came together in marriage, dishonesty and lack of trust between spouses could be the root cause of marital dispute in a family. According to Respondent 1 (from Group D): “Money can be the root cause of it. Let say a man has a wife with at least a child. He will want to send him/her to school, but if the take home of the man is below expectations for the household expenses, then there may be problem, the wife may not be happy with the little the husband gives her for house keep and perhaps this is what the man can afford, but instead of the wife to cooperate she may start to quarrel with the man and claim that the amount is too small, believing probably her husband is playing prank, thinking may be he is having concubine outside where he spends half of his money and bring the remaining half home, and because she does not feel satisfied; this can lead to regular quarrels between the husband and wife. You know that things are not easy and work is not easy to come by, even work is not permanent in Nigeria. This makes it difficult if not impossible to satisfy all your needs. That means the issue about money is an elaborate thing”. Respondents 3 (Group A) observed that when a wife puts on a carefree attitude and seems not to be concerned about the welfare of her family, it could lead to conflict at home. He also pointed out that when a wife is not sensitive to the needs of her family but rather she is pre-occupied with attendance of social functions, doing this to the detriment of the care of her family members, especially her husband and the children at home, fight would definitely occur. His words: “What I noticed that causes this problem is lack of proper care or inadequate concern by the wife for the programme at home. There are certain women who do not care about their children. She doesn‟t know how they go to school, how they are feeding at home. Hers is just to go out for socials engagements. This is one of the major reasons for crisis in the home. And it encourages a man (husband) to check out for a woman friend or another wife. “When a wife at home cannot actually take proper care of the house, cannot manage her home, how do you think a man (husband) would be happy and have a rest of mind?” He further pointed out that “consider a man (husband) who has gone out to work since morning and would probably come back home in the evening and discovered that the children at home have not taken their bath since morning, such a father cannot be happy. More so, if 112 we look and cross examine the kind of life that our forefathers lived in the olden days; you would see that it differs from this present time. Who will ever say that he/she will want to follow after this? Such will be in for trouble and this is the cause of the crisis”. Another participant- Respondent 4 (from Group D) spoke on the same issue: “Firstly, what I see as the major cause of conflict between the husband and wife is „misunderstanding‟ Secondly, „inability to understand each other person‟s behaviour before they come together in marriage‟ So, you see, this “misunderstanding” is a major cause of conflict and quarrel, eh…there is one Yoruba adage, how do they say it ? „mowa fun oniwa, lonje ore mo fun ore‟ that is to be interpreted to mean “knowing each other person‟s attitudinal behaviour helps two friends to move together”. So, when the couples cannot even understand each other‟s behaviour, then there would be crisis. Then, out of those things that cause crisis this present time is probably the husband, before he got married, perhaps he has had a lot of ladies whom they have earlier on dated him or has been moving together as partners. He may have had about four of such people before; the wife too might have had boy friends numbering three to four before she got married. So, after getting married, if she is a type of wife that belong to a group of women who believed and always says “one husband (man) cannot fill up a cupboard” before she got married and now after been married and had become a wife and she is still moving with the same group having the same perception, such a woman would also not be contented with a man (her husband), likewise a man who had been moving with about three to four young ladies before and had not dropped them even after marrying a wife, you see, such a man would not be contended or satisfied. No matter what the wife at home may be doing to please him, he would still be looking out and have extramarital affairs”. Respondent 2 (Group A) said: “I as an individual, I have experienced it before. I am a man with two wives. What causes misunderstanding or quarrel lies in the way you married each other. I married my first wife according to the legality of Yoruba traditions. However, it is not the exact way that you meet yourself before coming together in marriage that is should be considered when relating and interacting with each each other at home 113 after marriage; people should consider the love and culture in marriage! .” He further stated that “perhaps there is no enough money to give to our laundryman and you noticed that your wife is less busy and you now called her to help you wash the clothes but she refused to wash it. In another instance, you discovered that there is food at home and you expected her to have prepared your food before your arrival from work, but to your surprise, on getting home, you did not see any food prepared for you. These are some of the causes of quarrel or problem at home”. Respondent 6 (from Group B), opined that when wives go contrary to what their husband desire or want from them, this could lead to marital conflicts. His words: “You see, about husband and wife matter in the home, what often lead to conflicts and quarrel is in this form, when the husband specify what he wanted from his wife that this and that is what he wants in his home but the wife do contrary to the instructions and disobeyed him, the husband can think of the need to marry another woman and hence this may cause quarrel because the husband may be upset and fight the wife. All these kinds of a thing can destabilize the family set up”. Other angle in which respondents perceived the issue was about greediness and the use of „juju‟ to marry a spouse (initiation of love). According to the opinion of one of the FGD participants, Respondent 2 (from Group C) who stressed that initiation of love affair could bring about inceasant quarrels when the juju power begins to fail. His words: “Another reason is that of „initiation of love affair‟ and maybe the practice involves both men and women alike. Supposing a woman admire a man probably because of his wealth or position and desire to marry him at all cost, she thought of what to do to accomplish her wish and immediately arrived at a decision to visit the herbalist to find help. This can be in the other way too, it may be that it is the man that wanted to initiate love affair and tries herbalist home for a help to marry a woman at all cost. If it happens that after their coming together (after marriage )and God is with the other neutral person and the juju power cannot continue to work on this other partner who is neutral, hence the effect of the love initiation (the use of juju power) could now turned out to result into frequent quarrel leading to incessant fighting. People who come to intervene may not know what is causing the problem, or what has happened between the two of them. They will be asking them” why is it that you are always fighting each other?” 114 Other FGD participants were of the opinion that lack of patience, lack of contentment and deception on the part of the wife are some of the causes of quarrel at home. For instance, a participant, Respondent 4 (also from Group C) responded very sharply and quickly that lack of patience by the wife is a contributory factor in the causes of conflict among the couple. He commented as follows: “This impatience is usually from the woman at home – the wife. It comes from the woman. Sometimes, they want to offend man intentionally. And what they do are so many. When the women do these things they do it intentionally”. He was asked for further clarification on what he meant by „those things that you know the women do‟, he said “for instance, now they always believe they are being cheated and that men always cheat them. If you provide them with the material things of this world, to them, you are still cheating them. Do you get it? And if he is a man that is weak and cool headed and has patience with them than necessary; they will play upon his intelligence. They will take him for a ride, he is a stupid man! This one is so dense! They will call him a monkey. They believed that what is doing to them is still a deceit. They do not have contentment”. About deception he mentioned earlier, he clarified this by saying that “let say now there is a particular family comprising of a brother (who is the senior) and a sister (the junior one). The junior one (sister) is married and had gone to her husband‟s home. The other brother and their mother are left in the house – now living together. He and his mother know how they relate among themselves. How they care for each other and when that lady (the sister) comes, she would want to cause misunderstanding between the two of them, this is a similar example and that is how she would conduct and behaves in her husband‟s home – It is like when she was not with them in the house, that they had agree to share something which they are not disclosing to her, that there is a particular money – her mother and her senior brother had share between themselves when she was not there. Now, she comes and she will then cause trouble / crisis”. In a bid to further probe the participants to expanciate more on the causes of conflict between a man and his wife, participants were asked whether issue relating to sexual intercourse between husband and a wife can bring about quarrel in the home to which the responses was in the affirmative “Yes”. 115 Respondent 3 (Group A) replied again and said: “Ah yes, it can, sure it can result into quarrel! Issue relating to sexual intercourse can bring about quarrel, as we all know we are not the same, human beings vary, because God made us differently and our body perception or sexual attachment differs. Some couple seldomly have sexual intercourse – may be once in a month, or once in three months or once in four months while some couple may have sex just once in a week. Some wives may not tolerate long absence of sexual intercourse, some married women will not agree with their husband to miss sexual intercourse for a period of four or five months, while some men may disagree with their wives proposals to be having sexual intercourse every time especially more than once or twice weekly. If this matter was not settled amicably, it can lead to regular quarrel between a husband and wife. This kind of episode is even very common in many homes”. Respondent 6 (Group F) observed that where there is no mutual understanding among the spouses there would be quarrel. His words: “You see, the way I have looked at it, you see a family where there is no regular sexual intercourse between the husband and wife, no opportunity to have sexual relationship, probably the man (husband) as it was revealed the other time is a type that have pleasure in sexual intercourse and cannot do without having it everyday but the wife (woman) says she is not like that, hence when there is no mutual understanding between the two of them, this will be causing quarrel or crisis”. However, Respondent 1 (Group B) had a contrary opinion. He said that sexual relationship in a marriage does not affect a couple, although it depends on how God made each individual. He further stressed that: “Although it is a serious problem but “Uh um, there are something very significant and noticeable among two people that are involved in a quarrel. Quarrelling takes various forms. When you are quarrelling with somebody, you and that person will find it difficult to reach a compromise or come together in agreement. But when the quarrel has a weak base and not a serious type, as in certain people, concerning some women as you have stressed the issue relating to sexual intercourse, that among some women , no matter the seriousness of their quarrel or the level of quarrel, to be fighting her everyday, that you almost cut off her head, it does not 116 matter, just move closer and have sex with her. And there are certain particular women, when she actually knows that her husband cannot but move closer to her always, knowing that she can use this husband‟s sexual desire to punish him, she would then use the period of their quarrel to discipline her husband, to the extend that when the man should go to her to request for sex, she would not yield herself and this can last throughout the period of their quarrel. The main reason why I keep on saying that is that they are in various forms. That is the culture of women. It depends on how it is. You can be quarrelling and fight her to the extend of about cutting her head, in as much as she desired in having sexual intercourse, when it comes to that issue, she would definitely forget about the quarrel. … It does not have any impact on their sexual relationship. No impact at all”. This view was supported by respondent 2 (from Group E) saying: “Well, with me it cannot result into fight, God forbid, it has been up to three months ago that I and my wife have seen each other last. It has never resulted into fighting and I do not have any girl friend outside. There is nothing like fighting in that”. Quantitative Findings: 4.4.4 Various marital problems / Disputes between Spouses: One hundred and sixteen (29%) of respondents reported ever experienced problems with their wives in their various matrimonial homes, out of these number, 12 (10.3%) complained about their wives having frequent quarrels with peers and neighbours including their own parents too, 16 (13.8%) of them complained about wife quarrelling with them on monetary matters, and 17 (14.7%) complained about wife‟s disobedience to their instructions, while 18 (15.5%) stated that their wives don‟t want to see their relations and 10 (8.6%) were having dispute because wife could not raise a male child (See Table 4.4.4 below for more details). 117 Table 4.4.4: Various marital problems / Disputes between spouses Statement No % 1 Have you experienced problems from your wife/wives at home that . could influence your decision to participate in extramarital sexual relationship? (N=400) Options: 1.) Yes 116 29.0 2.) No 266 66.5 No response 18 4.5 2 Type of problems experienced from wife/wives at home. (n=116) . Options: 1.) Fr 1.) Frequent quarrels with peers and neighbours including my parents 12 10.3 2.) Quarrels on monetary matters 16 13.8 3.) Poor management of home resources 11 9.5 4.) Disobedience to husband injunctions 17 14.7 5.) Don‟t want to see husband relations 18 15.5 6.) No child 02 1.7 7.) Always falling sick 15 13.0 8.) Flirts about 08 6.9 9.) No progress in husband business since marriage 01 0.9 10.) No male child 10 8.6 No response 06 4.2 118 4.4.5 Responses to the advice and example of friends, parents, family relations and significant others. FGD Participants discussed very well on the effects of frequent quarrels on sexual relationship between a husband and a wife. Some of them were of the opinion that frequent quarrels would have a negative effect on the sexual relationship of the couples as well as on their children. The following were responses from a few of them: Respondent 1 (Group F) said: “When there is a quarrel between the husband and wife it is certain that the two would not be happy with each other. How then will this not affect their sexual relationship? Definitely they won‟t have sex at that period. If the man is interested in sex he would prefer to go out and have it with another woman outside. This could lead to the beginning of extramarital involvement by the man. Likewise the wife (woman at home) can do the same”. Respondent 1(from Group E) commented thus: “Firstly, it will pull them apart. Each partner would be going on his or her own way. There would be no more togetherness as usual. The interest to have sexual relationship with each other would be reduced. The implication is that each partner would begin to create hatred for each other. This will make each of them to develop interest in another person whom they like. Secondly, it can lead to divorce. Thirdly, if there is a divorce, it will affect the development of the children. A Yoruba adage says “ija ko le wa laarin loko laya ko ma ran omo”. That is “when there is a conflict between the husband and the wife it will definitely affect the children”. The father (husband) could stop his responsibilities or reduce financial grants to the children education, because another Yoruba adage says “Iya ti ko ba dara, ti ko si niwa, omo re kii wuni”. Meaning that “A woman who is troublesome and not of good character, her children are not loved”. Much of the effect would be on the children. The parents of the husband (man) could even wage war against such a woman if they notice the wife to be causing trouble in the home of their son, they would say Go! and leave my son if you would not give peace a chance. They could advise their son to send her packing”. 119 Quantitative findings: 4.4.5 Responses as to the advice and example of friends, parents, family relations and significant others. Seventy six (65.5%) of the respondents who reported ever experienced problems with their wives in their various matrimonial homes claimed to have one time or the other been advised to divorce or separate from their wives because of marital disputes / quarrels and domestic problems highlighted above, while 40 (34.5%) have not (see Table 4.4.5 below). When the respondents were asked if they have somebody whom they were trying to imitate or copy as their mentor, 72 (18%) reported they have, 328 (82.0%) did not. Amongst those who reported they have, only 5 (6.9%) have mentors‟ found to be involving in extramarital sexual relationship, while 15 (20.8%) did not, and 42 (58.3%) said they don‟t know, 10 (13.9%) did not respond at all. Seventeen (23.6%) of the respondents mentioned their uncle as their mentor, 15 (20.8%) mentioned their father, while 10 (13.9%) of them, each mentioning his close friend as his mentor respectively (See Table 4.4.5 below). 120 Table 4.4.5: Responses as to the advice and example of friends, parents, family relations and significant others. S/N Statement No % 1 Have you been advised by anybody to divorce or separate from your wife or keep a woman outside because of those problems highlighted above? (n=116) Options: 1.) Yes, I have 76 65.5 2.) No, I have not 40 34.5 2 As a married man, do you have anybody whom you are trying to imitate or copy as your mentor? (N=400) Options: 1.) Yes 72 18.0 2.) No 328 82.0 3 If your answer is “YES”, who is that individual? ( n= 72) Options: : 1.) My elder brother 15 20.8 2.) My uncle/ cousin 17 23.6 3.) My own father 15 20.8 4.) My boss 05 6.9 5.) One of my friends 10 13.9 No response 10 13.9 Has any of y4o Any of your „Mentors‟ found to be involving in Extramarital Sexual relationship? (n=72) Options: 1.) Yes 05 6.9 2.) No 15 20.8 3.) I don‟t know 42 58.3 No response 1 0 1 3 . 9 121 SECTION FIVE: PERCEPTIONS OF RISK INVOLVED IN EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP: 4.5.1 Assessment of sexual practices and perceptions of risk involved in extramarital sexual relationship. During FGD sessions, participants were asked to mention if they know of any risks or dangers inherent in extramarital sexual practice? Some responded in the affirmative “Yes” saying that there are lots of risks and problems inherent in extramarital sexual relationship. Among those risks mentioned include: risk of infection (such as HIV, Gonorrhoea, and Syphilis); risk of divorce (if the wife should know about it); physical attack (from the spouse of the said woman) and that children education could be affected, to mention a few. These are responses recorded from a few of them: Respondent 1 (from Group C) said: “The dangers inherent are many, firstly, engaging in extramarital sex the person could have infectious diseases, and when he is infected, he can transmit the same to the woman at home especially HIV. It is not even HIV alone or diseases but for the mere fact that he is going out is dangerous to the family whom they believe could be cheating the whole family. May be he has one hundred naira ( #100.00) he would now need to divide it into two equal halves, spend half outside and then bring the other half home and as such this might be affecting the home economy. In addition, infection with HIV or AIDS diseases is most dangerous because the innocent woman at home could be infected. This problem could eventually affect the children. The second, you know that generally it is not good to be having extramarital affairs. That is adultery, there is no gain in it, instead it affects one financially, and it will affect your spending. So, it is not even good at all, if one is infected with AIDS now the woman may not know initially and eventually she would be infected and you are the one responsible for the problem because you brought it from outside. And before you know it, the problem could have spread to the children probably through the use of blade or any other things. Most often, the fathers (husband) bring this calamity into the family. The funniest aspect of it is that most of the women who are in the habit of this act would refuse condom when their man friends offer them. You know this kind of women who refused condoms know that they are infected and as such wanted to infect others freely. What is the 122 meaning of this and how can we explain a woman whom you want to sex and you tell her you want to use a condom and she refused? You see somebody who is not your wife, definitely she want to destroy you and your family! I just want to implore all and sundry, especially married men to adjust and discipline themselves. The man is mostly affected. You will lose your blood, money, eh; these problems are in various ways. Although, we too have one time or the other be in the same shoe, but with our experience we know that there is no enjoyment of any kind in it, such an individual will be loosing instead of gaining. My advice once again is to plead to men who are in this habit to change their mind and repent on this, for there is no gain in it”. Respondent 2 (Group F) in his own contribution said:- “If the legitimate husband of the woman should know about this relationship he might set his wife using juju to catch the man or may physically attack him. We have seen and hear of cases of men having thunder bolt (caught “Magun”) and died after having sexual intercourse with another women. Another popular case was that of Shomolu / Bariga in Lagos state where the two joined together and the penis could not be released out of the vaginal after the sexual intercourse.” Respondent 2 (Group D), also pointed out that there are many risks involved. His words: “The risks are many! Let start to mention these risks one by one. First of all,risk of contracting micro- organism causing diseases which cannot be seen with our naked eyes but eventually destroy the body immunity when they enter human body system, for instance Gonorrhoea. If a man has a wife at home then has another woman outside, and as time goes on, he fall sick and down with a venereal disease- contracted from outside and eventually transferred the virus to others- including his wife. Such a person would not want to disclose his health problem to his wife or any relation. However, if the man did not involved in extramarital relations, and invariably contracted a disease from elsewhere, (since a man can contract disease from various means), when such occurred, and the man infected his wife in the process of their sexual relation, he would be bold enough to disclose the problem to his wife or a closed relation, who will be able to support him and offer necessary care in the course of his treatment. Nevertheless, if the man is very popular outside, always seen with a woman here and there, and he contracted disease. He may not 123 know the source of the problem- where the problem emanated from, and because of this would not disclose to anybody. The wife at home may not know this either, this make it easier for the man to transfer the disease to the wife. You know, it is difficult for a wife at home to refuse her husband for a fun, or to tell her husband to submit himself for a medical examination (test) before having sexual intercourse. Now if the man engages in extramarital affairs outside, then there is possibility of entering into risk of contracting venereal diseases, firstly HIV, which may later develop to AIDS. This is in fact a great danger! However, if the man stays only with his wife and did not have any other woman outside even if they have a disease, the family members would support them, they would receive cure for the treatment if it pleases God”. In a bid to collect more information from the participants on this theme, the moderator asked the respondents another question thus: What are those likely outcomes of extramarital activities on the family if the secrete of the relationship becomes open? Some of the FGD participants said it could lead to divorce, children education could be affected, and wife could be violent as she may make attempt to fight the husband back. Here are their words: Respondent 3 (Group B) said: “Anyway, problem may come up. They may because of this divorce each other. This can be viewed in two ways, they can divorce, but if the wife is happy about it she can accept, but as for me, I cannot marry two wives”. Respondent 6- (Group A) replied: “Ah, there will be much crisis o. Even separation may firstly occur. This is because when the wife is aware of the situation on ground that her husband has another woman outside, she knows that her children education is going to be affected and when the two should eventually separate, husband will be sleeping somewhere and the wife may pack to her parent‟s house. Hence, it is not good”. Respondent 1(Group E) said: “It depends on the man, because some men don‟t border at all that the secret opens to their wives but for those men who cares, of course it brings shame and all of that. But there are some men who would not want their wives to know, and when it gets to that level in a man, it is just because certain fundamental (money & materials) has not been met in his life”. 124 Another participant, Respondent 2 (Group C) commented as follows: “Eh, the wife will react and fight the husband because of it. It may spoil the home. It can bring calamity into the family. It will affect the children‟s education and the home economy; there will be less concentration on the care of the children. Moreso, if the man should concentrate and care more for the woman friend outside, there will be more problems for the wife and children at home but if the man applied wisdom and did not concentrate more or face one side, if he gives equal treatment then, there is possibility of good care for the children at home. Finally, once the wife at home realized that they are two or that her husband is having another woman outside crisis may begin to crop up within the family”. Quantitative findings: 4.5.1 Assessment of sexual practices and perceptions of risk involved in extramarital sexual relationship. Amongst those respondents who reported ever been engaging in extramarital sexual activities, only 13 (8.8%) used a condom during such sexual contact, while 135 (91.2%) did not. Reason(s) given for none use of condom were as follow: I prefer direct skin contact (35.8%), I don‟t enjoy sex with condom use (21.4%), I cannot be carrying condom in my pocket all about (14.3%), I just hate it! It messes up my penis when I use it (14.3%), I‟m always ashamed of going to the chemist shop to ask for a condom (7.1%). When respondents were asked to express their perceptions about the risk(s) and shortcomings associated with extramarital sexual activities, the following were their views: risk of divorce if the wife discovers the secret (7.3%), infection such as Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) e.g. Gonorrhea, Syphilis, and HIV/AIDS (6.1%), reduced family commitment by the husband especially towards the care of children at home (40.1%), there may be physical attack by the spouse of the woman whom he relates with secretly (0.8%), sudden death through supernatural power (Magun) (2.5%). This result indicated that nearly all the respondents had positive perceptions about the shortcomings or the consequences of extramarital sexual affairs, as each individual could mention one or two shortcomings associated with extramarital sexual behaviour. See Table 4.5.1.below for details. 125 Table 4.5.1: Assessment of sexual practices and perceptions of risk involved in extramarital sexual relationship Statement № % 1a. If you had ever been engaging in extramarital sexual activities, did you use a Condom during such sexual contact? (n=148) 1.) Yes 13 8.8 2.) No 135 91.2 1b. If Yes, state the method used: (n=13) 1.) Male condom 13 100 2.) Female condom Nil Nil 1c. I f y o u r answer to question No 2a. is “No”, why didn‟t you use condom? (Give a reason why?) (n=135) Various reasons given by the respondents are: 1.) I prefer direct skin contact. 48 35.8 2.) I don‟t enjoy sex with condom use. 29 21.4 3.) I cannot be carrying condom in my pocket all about. 19 14.3 4.) I just hate it! It messes up my penis when I use it. 19 14.3 5.) I‟m always ashamed of going to the chemist shop to ask for a condom. 10 7.1 No response. 10 7.1 2. What do you perceived to be the risk(s) and shortcomings associated with extramarital sexual activities (n= 148) (1) Risk of divorce if the wife discover the secret. 11 7.3 (2) Infection such as Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) e.g. Gonorrhea, Syphilis, and HIV/AIDS. 09 6.1 (3) Reduced family commitment by the husband especially towards the care of children at home. 60 40.1 (4) There may be physical attack by the spouse of the woman whom he relates with secretly. 01 0.8 (5) Sudden death through supernatural power (Magun). 04 2.5 (6) Options 2 and 3 above. 07 4.7 (7) Options 4 and 5 above 08 5.6 ( (8) Any one of the above options 1-5 could happen. 48 32.4 126 SECTION SIX: PERCEPTIONS ON SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION 4.6.1. Perceptions on susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infection. Under this sub-theme, a question was asked from the respondents in order to determine the perceptions of the FGD participants on issue related to perception on susceptibility to sexually transmitted Infection (STI). The question was asked thus: As a married man who is very agile, sexually active and being admired and loved by many people including women around, how would you play your game and what precautioary measures would you adopt to ensure safety in your relationship with those who show their love to you? In their reaction to this question, a few of the respondents said they would not disappoint those who loved them and that they would only need to protect themselves by using condoms during such sexual relationships. Majority however said they would not engage in extramarital sexual relations at all. Their words: Respondent 3 (Group F) said: “If I found myself in that position, I would play a safe game. I would love to satisfy them but would protect myself by using condoms and taking extra care not to fall into the hands of attackers. Yes! Een, yes! One just needs to be extra careful in dealing with married women, but for young ladies, I would use condom for them. I cannot afford to disgrace those who show love to me”. Respondent 2 (also from Group F) commented as follows: “A Yoruba adage says “Eniyan kii yagbe to ba ro si tosi.” Meaning that “Nobody would love passing a very soft stool in ones immediate environment”. If I found myself in that position I would not want to do it with people around my place. And when I do it at all it must be with condom use”. Respondent 4 (Group D) said: “I, as a person, would not have a woman or wife who had already got married. Do you understand my point? That a woman is in her matrimonial home and for me to toast her, No! No!! I will not. However, a woman that is not in her matrimonial 127 home, not with any man, I can talk with her. I can move with her. That is the only thing I can do. That is all.” Quantitative findings: 4.6.1. Perceptions on susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI). Amongst the respondents who had reported engaging in extramarital sexual relationship, 25 (16.9%) perceived themselves susceptible to Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs), while 123 (83.1%) had no such perception (See Table 4.6.1. below). Table 4.6.1: Respondents‟ Perceptions of susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs) or HIV outcome risk Statement № % 1. If you have claimed to be engaging in extramarital sexual relationship, do you perceive you‟re susceptible to any of the Sexually Transmitted Infections? ( n=148) 1.) Yes 25 16.9 2.) No 123 83.1 The result of this study shows that majority of the respondents who engage in extramarital sexual activity did not perceive that they are susceptibile to STIs, especially HIV outcome risks. 128 4.7.1 Suggested factors to curb participation in extramarital sexual relationships by married men. FGD participants suggested various methods by which extramarital sexual behaviour could be reduced among married men. Their suggestions include: Pre-marital guidiance and counselling outreach for singles (who are matured for wedding); Seminar on causes of conflicts in marriage as well as conflict resolution and seminar on the consequences of extramarital sexual relationship. In addition to the above, the respondents advised that contentment, faithfulness to each other by the spouses, unconditional love, self discipline and faith in God and prayer would help the couples to deal with the temptations of infidelity. These are the views of a few of them: According to Respondent 5 (from Group A) when suggesting ways of reducing the incidence of extramarital sexual behaviour among married men, he said that married men should be contented with what they have. His comments: “Thank you, the only way to reduce this problem is that we should be contented with all the things which God had given to us. If we have contentment with those things that we have and could believe that all things in this world, it is God that provides it for human beings…En, if you have contentment with all the things that God gives to you and with prayer, there is no problem that would come that you would not overcome”. Respondent 1 (Group F) in his own contribution said: “It is you the health workers that can do the job. You see, now that you have come to us to find out about our opinion on why married men go out after another woman, now we have discussed many issues pertaining to this, I think what you should do is to tell the government to arrange seminars for married men to discuss, thereby the doctors or you the health workers would educate men about the consequences of extramarital affairs. Thank you”. 129 Respondent 5 (Group C) contributed thus: “If a man is contented, he won‟t go to have sex with another man‟s wife. I think with contentment and faithfulness to one‟s wife, it is certain that such a man would not go out in search of a dirty game”. Respondent 3 (Group B) said: “I think self discipline is the answer. If you have self discipline even if you‟re working with so many women, and you interact even in the same office, you would not be involved in extramarital sexual affairs.” Finally, Respondent 1(Group E) in his own contribution said: “Religion leaders should help to give pre-marital guidiance and counselling sevices to our youths who are matured and preparing for marriage- on the risks associated with extramarital sex. This will go a long way to caution them towards engaging in extramarital behaviour when they eventually get married.” Quantitative findings: 4.7.1 Respondents‟suggested factors to curb participation in extramarital sexual relationships by married men. Table 4.7.1 shows suggestions for curbing participation in extramarital sexual relationships by married men. 116 (29.0%) of the respondents suggested that health education seminar on extramarital sexual behaviours be arranged by health department of each Local Government, and 19 (4.7%) suggested that Health Education Unit of the FMOH should organise a sensitisation workshop on dangers inherent in extramarital sexual behaviour and risk of infections, and 16 (4.0%) suggested that NGOs whose major interest is on human reproductive health development should distribute handbills to sensitise couples on the consequences of extramarital sexual behaviours such as divorce, HIV/AIDS, sudden death (etc), while 32 (8.0%) suggested marital guidance and counselling services by religion institutions to encourage married men to be contended with their wives and be self disciplined. Bye and large, majority (50%) of the respondents suggested that in order to curb the participation in extramarital sexual relationship by married men, Parents, religious institution ministers, and marriage counsellors in the registry should try and encourage new couples to always reside together and discourage distant relationships that could orchestrate 130 the development of suspicions, which could result into frequent marital disputes and lead the offended partner to participate in extramarital sexual relationship. Table 4.7.1: Respondents‟suggested factors to curb participation in extramarital sexual relationships by married men S/N Statement No % Respondents‟ Suggested factors to curb married men engaging in extramarital sexual relation: (N=400) 1. Health education seminar on Extramarital sexual behaviours 116 29.0 and associated risks should be arranged by health department of each Local Government. 2. Health Education Unit of the FMOH should organise a sensitisation workshop on dangers inherent in extram- 19 4.7 -arital sexual behaviour and risk of infections such as HIV/AIDS. 3. NGOs whose major interest is on human reproductive health development should distribute handbills on the consequences of 16 4.0 extramarital sexual behaviours such as divorce, HIV/ AIDS, sudden death (e .t .c.). 4. Marital guidance and counselling services should be undertaken by religion institutions to encourage married men to be 32 8.0 contended with their wives and be self-disciplined. 5. Parents, religious institution ministers, and marriage counsellors in the registry should try and encourage the new couples to 200 50.0 always reside together and discourage distant relationships that could orchestrate the development of suspicions, which could result into marital disputes and later extramarital sexual involvement. 6. No response 17 4.3 131 4.8 TEST OF HYPOTHESES 4.8.1. Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between Occupation of the respondents and their involvement in extramarital sexual activities. Table 4.8.1: Showing the relationship that exists between respondents‟ occupation and participation in extramarital sexual affairs. It was observed that out of a total number of 6 respondents who were farmers, 1 (16.7%) of them were found to be perpetrating in extramarital sexual affairs, while 5 (83.3%) of them did not. Fourteen of the total number of respondents were involved in clerical job, 3 (21.4%) of them were involved in extramarital affairs, while 11 (78.6%) claimed they were not involved. Ninety five of the total respondents were artisans, out of these number, only 23 (24.2 %) were found to be involved in extramarital sexual activites, while the remaining 72 (75.8%) did not. Among the drivers, out of their total number of 157, eighty (51.0%) were found to be perpetrating in extramarital sex, while 77 (49.0%) did not. Eighty five of the respondents were traders, 25 (29.4%) of them were found to be involved in extramarital relationships, while 60 (70.6%) of them did not. Twenty of the total number of respondents were engaged in teaching job, 5 (25.0%) of them were found to be having extramarital sex, while 15 (75.0%) of them did not. Result of Findings: The result of findings indicated that there was a statistical significant association (Χ²=32.77, Χ²0.05=15.5, DF=8, P < 0.05) between the respondents‟ occupation and perpetration in extramarital sex. Other findings were as contained in Table 4.8.1. 132 Table 4.8.1: Showing the relationship that exists between respondents‟ Occupation and participation in extramarital sexual activities. EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL INVOLVEMENT OCCUPATION YES NO TOTAL of Respondents Freq. % Freq. % Freq. Farming 1 16.7 5 83.3 6 Clerical job 3 21.4 11 78.6 14 Artisan 23 24.2 72 75.8 95 Driving 80 51.0 77 49.0 157 Trading 25 29.4 60 70.6 85 Teaching 5 25.0 15 75.0 20 Health Worker 7 70.0 3 30.0 10 Banking / Accounting 4 44.4 5 55.6 9 Other Business or Occupation not 0 0.0 4 100.0 4 mentioned 148 252 400 TOTAL 37.0% 63.0% 100% Chi square Χ² = 32.77 Actual P value (Χ²0.05 ) =15.5 DF = 8 P < 0.05 133 4.8.2. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between respondents‟ religion and their involvement in extramarital sexual activities. Table 4.8.2.below shows the relationships that exist between respondent‟s religion and participation in extramarital sexual relationship. It was observed that out of a total number of 202 respondents who were Christians, 80 (39.6%) of them were participating in extramarital sexual affairs, while 122 (60.4%) of them did not. Among the total number of 198 respondents who were in Islamic religion, 68 (34.3%) of them were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while 130 (65.7%) of them were not involved. Result of Findings: The result of findings shows that there was no statistical significant association (Χ²=1.19, Χ²0.05=3.84, DF = 1, P > 0.05) between the respondents‟ religion and involvement in extramarital sexual relationship. Table 4.8.2: Showing the relationships that exist between respondents‟ religion affiliation and participation in extramarital sexual activities EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL INVOLVEMENT RESPONDENTS' RELIGION YES NO Total Freq. % Freq. % Freq. CHRISTIANITY 80 39.6 122 60.4 202 ISLAMIC- RELIGION 68 34.3 130 65.7 198 TOTAL 148 252 400 (37.0%) (63.0%) (100%) Chi square Χ² = 1.19 Actual P value (Χ²0.05) = 3.84 DF =1 P > 0.05 134 4.8.3. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship between marriage setting of the respondents (monogamous or polygamous) and their involvement in extramarital sexual relations. Table 4.8.3 below shows the relationships that exist between marriage setting and participation in extramarital sexual relationship. Two hundred and ninety five of all the respondents were from monogamous setting, and out of this number, 87 (29.5%) reported been involved in extramarital sex, while 208 (70.5%) of them did not. One hundred and five of the respondents were from polygamous setting, out of which 61 (58.1%) of them were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while the rest 44 (41.9%) were not involved. The result of findings: The result of findings shows that there was a statistical significant association (Χ²=27.18, Χ²0.05=3.84, DF=1, P < 0.05) between type of marital union and participation in extramarital sexual relationship. Table 4.8.3: Showing the relationships that exist between marriage setting and perpetration in extramarital sexual relationship. EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL INVOLVEMENT Type of Marital Union YES NO Total Freq. % Freq. % Freq. Monogamous 87 29.5 208 70.5 295 Polygamous 61 58.1 44 41.9 105 TOTAL 148 252 400 (37.0%) (63.0%) (100%) Chi square Χ² = 27.18 Actual P- value (Χ²0.05) =3.84 DF = 1 P < 0.05 135 4.8.4. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant relationship between respondents‟ living with their spouses and involvement in extramarital sexual relations. The result of findings from the relationship between respondents‟ living with their spouses and involvement in extramarital sexual relationship is presented in table 4.8.2 below. Table 4.8.4: Out of 172 of the respondents that reported having their wife or wives living with them in Ibadan, 50 (29.1%) were found to be involved in extramarital sexual relationship, while 122 (70.9%) of them were not involved. Two hundred and eleven respondents were not having their wife or wives living with them in Ibadan, out of this number, 84 (39.8%) were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while 127 (60.2%) were not involved. Seventeen of the respondents belonged to the group whose wife‟s whereabouts were not disclosed, out of this number, 14 (82.4%) were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while 3 (17.6%) of them were were not involved. Result of Findings: The result of findings shows that there was a statistical significant association (Χ²= 20.36, Χ²0.05= 5.99, DF= 2, P < 0.05) between respondents‟ living with wife / wives and involvement in extramarital sexual relationship. Other findings were as contained in the table below. 136 Table 4.8.4: Showing the relationship that exists between respondents‟ living with wife / wives, and their involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour. EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL INVOLVEMENT Respondents‟living with wife/ wives? YES NO Total Freq. % Freq. % Freq. - Wife/ wives living with me in Ibadan. 50 29.1 122 70.9 172 -Wife/ Wives Not living with me in 84 39.8 127 60.2 211 Ibadan. -Wife/ wives‟ whereabouts not 14 82.4 3 17.6 17 disclosed. 148 252 400 TOTAL (37.0%) (63.0%) 100% Chi square Χ² = 20.36 Actual P- value (Χ²0.05) =5.99 DF = 2 P < 0.05 137 4.8.5. Hypothesis 5 There is no significant relationship between educational level of the respondents and their involvement in extramarital sex. Table 4.8.5: Out of the total number of 14 respondents who had no formal education, 12 (85.7%) were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while only 2 (14.3%) of them were not involved. One hundred and five of all the respondents had primary education, and out of these number, 22 (21.0%) were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while 83(79.0%) were not involved. One hundred and eighty respondents claimed to have had secondary education, and out of these, 51 (28.3%) were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while 129 (71.7%) were not involved. One hundred and one of the respondents had tertiary education, 63 (62.4%) of them engaged in extramarital sex, while 38 (37.6%) did not. Result of Findings: It was observed that there was a statistical significant association (Χ²=59.56, Χ²0.05= 7.81, DF=3, P< 0.05) between level of education and participation in extramarital sex. Other findings were as contained in the table below. Table 4.8.5: Showing the result of the relationship between level of education of respondents and involvement in extramarital sexual relationship. EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL INVOLVEMENT RESPONDENTS‟ LEVEL OF YES NO TOTAL EDUCATION Freq. % Freq. % Freq. No formal education 12 85.7 2 14.3 14 Primary education 22 21.0 83 79.0 105 Secondary education 51 28.3 129 71.7 180 Tertiary education 63 62.4 38 37.6 101 Total 148 252 400 Chi square Χ² = 59.56 Actual P-value (Χ²0.05 )= 7.81 DF =3 P < 0.05 138 4.8.6. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant association between the level of education of those respondents who perpetrated extramarital sex and their perception of vulnerability to Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs). Table 4.8.6 below shows the relationship that exists between respondents‟ participation in extramarital sex by level of education and their perception of vulnerability to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). Out of 148 of all respondents who reported being involved in extramarital sex, only 25 (16.9%) of them perceived vulnerable to STIs. Twelve respondents had no formal education, 3 (25.0%) of them were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while 9 (75.0%) were not involved. Twenty two respondents had primary education, out of this number, 5 (22.7%) got involved in extramarital sex, while 17 (77.3%) did not. Fifty one respondents had secondary education, 7 (13.7%) of them were involved in extramarital sex, 44 (86.3%) were not involved. Sixty three respondents had tertiary education, out of this number, 10 (15.9%) were found to be involved in extramarital sex, while 53 (84.1%) were not involved. Result of Findings: It was observed that there was no statistical significant association (Χ²=1.47, Χ²0.05= 7.81, DF=3, P < 0.05) between the level of education of those who got involved in extramarital sex and perceived vulnerability to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). 139 Table 4.8.6: Showing the relationships that exist between the level of education of those (148 respondents) that got involved in extramarital sex and their perceived vulnerability to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). PERCEIVED VULNERABILITY TO SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION Level of education of those who got involved in YES NO Total extramarital sex. Freq. % Freq. % Freq. No Formal education 3 25.0 9 75.0 12 Primary Education 5 22.7 17 77.3 22 Secondary Education 7 13.7 44 86.3 51 Tertiary Education 10 15.9 53 84.1 63 Total 25 123 148 16.9% 83.1% 100.0% Chi square Χ² =1.47 Actual P-value (Χ²0.05=)= 7.81 DF =3 P > 0.05 140 4.9 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The findings of this study are summarized thus: 1. There was a statistical significant association between the respondents‟ occupation and involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour (Χ²=32.77, Χ²0.05=15.5, DF=8, P < 0.05). 2. There was no statistical significant association between the respondents‟ religion and involvement in extramarital sexual relationship (Χ²=1.19, Χ²0.05=3.84, DF = 1, P > 0.05). 3. There was a statistical significant association between marriage setting and participation in extramarital sexual relationship (Χ²=27.18, Χ²0.05=3.84, DF=1, P < 0.05). 4. There was a statistical significant association between respondents‟ living with wife / wives and involvement in extramarital sexual relationship (Χ²= 20.36, Χ²0.05= 5.99, DF= 2, P< 0.05). 5. There was a statistical significant association between level of education and participation in extramarital sex. (Χ²=59.56, Χ²0.05= 7.81, DF=3, P< 0.05). 6. There was no statistical significant association between the level of education of those who got involved in extramarital sex and perception of vulnerability to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) (Χ²=1.47, Χ²0.05= 7.81, DF=3, P > 0.05). 141 Table 4.9.1: Summary of „Predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour‟- as identified by the respondents, arranged using a source dimension perspective. S/N SOURCE PREDISPOSING FACTORS TO EXTRAMARITAL DIMENSION INVOLVEMENT 1. Involved Partner factors 1. Age: Extramarital sexual activities are more common among young adults (in reproductive age group). 2. Gender: Extramarital sexual behaviour is common among men than women. 3. Level of education: There is evidence of significant association between level of education and extramarital involvement (Χ²=59.56, Χ²0.05= 7.81, DF=3, P< 0.05). 4. Social lifestyle: Pre-marital sexual experience, and interest in keeping women friends. 5. Family history: History of divorce or separation from wife. 6. Need: Need for sexual variety. 7. Dissatisfaction with marital sexual intercourse. 8. Financial reasons. 9. Alcohol or Drug addiction. 2. Spousal Factors 1. Women in heterosexual relationships. 2. Suspicion of one another. e.g. Husband suspecting wife or vice-versa. 3. Wife‟s nagging behaviour. 4. Pre-marital sexual experiences of both spouses. 5. Sexual addiction of both spouses. 6. Action taken to revenge against offending partner. 3. Marital Factors 1. Frequent marital disputes (between Spouses). 2. Dissatisfaction with marital sexual intercourse by both spouses. 3. Infertility problem (cause from wife or the husband). 4. Spouse living apart (from each other). 5. Lack of support in the marriage. 6. Lack of intimacy in the marriage union. 7. A wife‟s pregnancy could be a predisposing factor. 8. Issue of cultural beliefs and abstainence from sexual intercourse during wife‟s pregnancy or breastfeeding. 9. Inability to have a child. 4. Contextual factors 1. Peer group influences. 2. A variety of opportunity- e.g. one of the spouse travels out due to job changes. 3. Presence of alternative sexual partners. 4. Perception of the frequency and acceptability of extramarital sexual involvement in one‟s social or cultural context. 5. Migration- due to a search for a new job placement. 6. Nature of Job (occupation). 142 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter is organised into six sub-sections as follows: Prevalence of married men engaging in extramarital involvement; Influence of Occupation and working environment; Socio-Cultural factors influencing participation in extramarital involvement; Assessment of Perceptions of risks associated with extramarital sex, and finally, Respondents‟ perceptions of susceptibility to the risk of STD / HIV as consequences of extramarital affairs. The chapter ends with the conclusion and recommendations including suggestions for further studies. 5.1 PREVALENCE OF MARRIED MEN THAT ENGAGED IN EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR 5.1.1. Sexual behaviours and extramarital involvement. Among the study population, 37% of the respondents (married men) reported having sexual relationship outside their matrimonial home. In addition, 21.6% of them reported having women or ladies whom they relate with on friendly basis. This indicates that extramarital involvement is also practiced among married men in Ibadan North LGA. Similar findings had been reported by Orubuloye et al (1993) who found that 15% to 27% of men in 3 states in Southwest Nigeria reported extramarital sexual activitiy in the year preceeding their study. In a similar finding, Isiugo-Abanihe (1994) demonstrated that 19% of married men in five urban centres in Nigeria reported extramarital sexual relations in the previous week to his survey study. The finding is also supported by Kimuna and Djamba (2005) in a study conducted in Zambia, which also found out that 19% of married men studied had had extramarital sex in the year prior to the survey and their mean number of partners was 1.3. Likewise, Schensul et al (2006) also observed that out of the respondents in their study, slightly over a fifth of the men reported that they had ever had extramarital sex and slightly over a tenth reported that they had extramarital sex in the year preceeding their study. They also found out that the great majority of these men reported having extramarital sex at least one time with a woman who was not a sex worker. It has also been found that there was a statistical significant association between level of education and participation in extramarital sex. This was however in line with Smith, (1994) who opined that although higher education is associated with more accepting 143 attitude about extramarital involvement, the relation between education and actual extramarital involvement is less clear. Amato and Rogers, 1997; Atkins et al, 2001; Buunk, 1980; Leigh et al; 1993; Traeen and Stigum, 1998 however affirmed that most research has revealed a slight positive relation between education and history of extramarital involvement and between education and frequency of extramarital involvement for men. However, Atkins et al (2001) found that the positive relation between education and extramarital sexual involvement held only for those who had a history of divorce. Choi et al (1994) found that having less education was a significant risk factor for African –American men only, and Traeen and Stigum (1998) found that higher education predicted more extramarital involvement only in older Cohorts. The relation between education and extramarital involvement may vary and be influenced by other factors. 5.1.2. Respondents‟ Choice and reasons for extramarital relationship. The form of extramarital involvement and the respondents‟ reasons for engaging in the act were also explored. Various reasons were given by the respondents for creating interest in friendly relationship with women outside their matrimonial home, such as to meet both social and psychological needs, because of sexual fulfilment, friendship, and fun of it, a need for sexual variety, apathy towards spouse at home, and a quest for a male child. Similar findings was also reported by Atwood and Seifer (1997); Glass and Wright (1992). Among interpersonal reasons they cited include: curiosity and desire for variety, sensation seeking, experimental drives, reassurance of desirability or worth, to have fun, a need for conquest and power, combating a sense of inadequacy, escapism, exploring sexual orientation, or difficulties with intimacy. Majority of the respondents (who were involving in extramarital sexual behaviour) reported that they make choice for a particular class of woman friend or lady whom they preferred to relate with, ranging from any matured school girls or college girls (aristos), young beautiful working class ladies, any matured woman trader (who is beautiful), and any beautiful commercial sex worker. This finding is in line with Moultrup (1990) who posited that, single extramarital partners theoretically, may have ambivalence about intimacy and have relationship with married person in order to avoid the demands of an exclusive relationship. Smith (2002) also reported about the issue of the so-called “sugar daddy” relationships, wherein married men of means engage in sexual relationship with much younger women with the expectation that the men will provide various forms of economic support in exchange for sex. Pittman (1989) concluded 144 that the choice of an extramarital partner is largely based on how different the other person (extramarital partner) is from the spouse. 5.2 INFLUENCE OF OCCUPATION AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT Majority of the respondents have one job or the other business which they engage upon and set out very early in the morning and closed at work between 3.00 pm and 6.00pm while a few close at 9.30 pm. as indicated in the result. At their places of work, some of them are exposed to opposite sex partners. Hence employment may comprise an opportunity variable. This finding is in line with observations made by Glass, 2003; Wiggins and Lederer, 1984, in their clinical samples of couples, that 46 to 62% of involved partners reported that they met their extramarital partner at work. In addition, some of these respondents do not go home straight, as some have one joint or the other to relax and wile away time before retiring home. A few, (18.4%) smoke cigarette, some others, (36.3%) take alcoholic drinks. This might serve as precursors to extramarital affairs as the types of friends they keep or hang with and their working environment directly or indirectly might influence them and exert pressure on them. This is in line with the observation made by Akin John (2005) who opined that the world of today is indeed exerting tremendous pressure on every male. Unfortunately, most men are incapable of handling these pressures and many have crumbled and are crumbling under these pressures from their environment, society, home, friends, and host of others. 5.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING PERPETRATION IN EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR: 5.3.1. Issue of husband and wife living apart: Living apart between couples was identified by the FGD respondents as one of the factors influencing extramarital involvement. In the same vein, majority of the respondents claimed that their wives were not living with them while just only a few of them were having their wives living with them in Ibadan. A similar finding was also reported by Allen (2001), that 30% of his respondents (married couple) reported spending a great deal of time apart. This is also in line with Walsh (2006), who posited that “Some extramarital affairs are reactivity to a perceived lack of intimacy in the marriage or difficulties with intimacy” (Atwood and Seifer, 1997; Glass and Wright, 1992, Greene, Lee and Lustig, 1974). 145 5.3.2 Issue of „Loneliness‟ - as a factor. FGD participants also posited that loneliness could influence a married man to perpetrate extramarital sex as most men cannot control their sexual urge. In overall, about thirty-five percent of the respondents had for one time or the other experienced occasions when work had taken them away from home and no opportunity to take wife with them. This has an implication for the tendencies for a married man to be involved in extramarital sexual relationship. The more a married man stays away from his partner the more the propensity to engage in extramarital affairs, whether for companionship or for satisfying sexual urge. This finding agreed with the outcome of findings on work-related migration by Smith (2002) who revealed that men whose work takes them away from their wives and families are more likely to have extramarital relationships and they frequently attribute their behaviour to the opportunities and hardships produced by these absences. Loneliness and quest for intimacy with others, especially opposite sex partners, is a spousal predisposing factor towards extramarital involvement. Hence, Atkins et al (2005); Blumstein and Schwartz (1983) observed that spouses who lead relatively separate lives are at greater risk for engaging in extramarital sex or having more frequent extramarital involvement. 5.3.3. Relationship with wife/wives, and significant others. Eigthy- eight percentages of the respondents usually find time to play and make love with wife/wives at home, out of which 25% do have sex with their wives regularly. One hundred and twenty (30%) of the respondents had at least a woman who assists them financially beside wife/wives. Such assistance was reported to have come from their own mother, their elder sisters, and from a woman philanthropist and mother in-laws, while some had received such financial assistance from their women friends and from their sugar mummy. This indicates that majority of the respondents were at their prime reproductive ages, sociable, and relates fairly well with wives and significant others. The ability of these respondents to have social relationship with family members and outsiders could bring about social influences from admires who may likely want to develop social attraction and relationship. Hence, it was observed that the individual attitudes and orientation toward relationships that are considered as interpersonal variable might relate to a greater risk of engaging in extramarital involvement. Such specific variables according to Allen et al (2005) that have been assessed include the degree to which sexual intercourse and love are considered associated, emotional investment in a relationship, emotional dependency on the spouse, need for (non sexual) relational variety and intimacy with others (outside of 146 marriage), and adult romantic attachment style (Allen, 2001; Bogaert, and Sadava, 2002; Buunk, 1980). 5.3.4. Cultural perspectives and respondents‟ beliefs on „Sexuality and reproductive health issues‟ FGD respondents shared the opinion that „Cultural perspectives and taboos on human sexuality and reproductive health issues‟ had influence on extramarital sexual involvement. More than one third (42.5%) of the respondents shared the belief that a woman should not have sexual intercourse with her husband during pregnancy or when breastfeeding a baby. This is a misconception and is borne out of ignorance. It is a cultural taboo that is very rampant among the study population especially in south- western Nigeria where there is the traditional practice of proscription against sexual intercourse for women during pregnancy, and particularly in the post – partum period. The finding is in line with Lawoyin and Larsen (2002)‟s observation who opined that the traditional proscription against sex for women during pregnancy, and particularly in the post partum period leaves many men without sexual access to their wives for extended periods of time. According to them, this practice raises the question whether men abstain or seek other sexual partners. In addition, Ajuwon, Oladimeji, Adeniyi and Brieger (1994) during their research work at Ago Are, posited that the continued existence of a taboo against sexual intercourse while a mother is breastfeeding; frequent informal divorces and a tendency toward polygamy were identified by FGD members as factors that encourage extramarital sexual behaviour. 5.3.5 Marital disputes or Quarrels as a factor Marital disputes, conflicts or quarrels were identified by FGD respondents as factors predisposing to extramarital involvement. Twenty nine percent of the respondents reported ever experienced problems with their wives in their various matrimonial homes, some of them complained about wife quarrelling with them on monetary matters, wife‟s disobedience to their instructions, wives don‟t want to see their relations and many had disputes because wife could not raise a male child. Atwood and Seifer, 1997; Glass and Wright, 1992, also reported that marital disputes, conflicts and problems associated with lack of support in the marriage are marital predisposing factors to extramarital involvement. Moreover, some authors asserted that extramarital involvement emerges primarily from a marital system (Brown, 1991). Specific problems cited are varied and 147 include: boredom in the marriage, dissatisfaction with marital sex, a lack of support in the marriage, or marital conflict. 5.3.6. Responses as to the advice and example of friends, parents, family relations and significant others. FGD respondents stated that friends, parents and relatives could influence extramarital affairs by a way of advice, given approval, support or motivation. About seventy percent of the respondents claimed to have one time or the other been advised by friends, parents, and family relations to divorce or separate from their wives because of marital disputes or quarrels and domestic problems in their matrimonial homes. When the respondents were asked if they have somebody whom they were trying to imitate or copy as their mentor, 18% of them reported in affirmative, among whom 6.9% have mentors found to be involving in extramarital sexual relationship. This finding is in line with Atwood and Seifer, 1997; Lusterman, 1997; Vaughan, 1998, who affirmed that societal messages may sanction or encourage extramarital involvement, particularly for men. It has also been found by Buunk, 1980; Buunk and Bakker, 1995; that relative to individuals not reporting extramarital involvement, those who have engaged in extramarital activities estimate a higher prevalence of extramarital involvement in their community or immediate social group, and consider their friends more willing to engage in extramarital involvement themselves, and also believe that their friends would be relatively approving of their extramarital involvement. 5.4. PERCEPTION OF RISK(s) ASSOCIATED WITH EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR 5.4.1. Assessment of sexual practices and perceptions of risk involved in Extramarital sexual relationship. Although some respondents (21.6%) have opposite sex friends around their work places whom they trusted, fond of each other and relate on friendly basis, however, the result showed that there are a few others who were sexually involved with one another. The finding is supported by that of Pulerwitz, Izazola-Licea and Gortmaker (2001) which explored the risk of HIV and other Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) among married and cohabiting women in Mexico City, and found that most secondary partners were co- workers, mistresses, or friends. 148 Majority of those who were engaging in extramarital relationship among the respondents were in risky sexual behaviour. Only a few used a condom during extramarital sexual contact, while majority did not. Result indicated that there is still low level of awareness about condom use. This finding is in line with Lawoyin and Larsen, (2002) who reported that consistent condom use with extramarital partners was very low among urban and rural men (6.3% vs.1.7%). Also there was an evidence to show that the respondents‟ perceptions of the risk(s) associated with extramarital sex was very poor and this is very dangerous and risky to the health of the spouse at home because the wife could be infected with STIs. In a study conducted by Foreman (1999), it was posited that in a wide range of societies, women are at the risk for HIV primarily because of their husbands‟ extramarital sexual liaisons, and that wives have little control over this risk, which is not lessened by their own fidelity. Smith (2002) in a study found that women whose husbands cheat, protecting themselves through condom use is difficult, if not impossible because they cannot expect that their husbands will have used condoms in their extramarital relationships. Majority (41%) of the participants were not involved in extramarital relationships for the following reasons: fear of their spouse knowing, protection of own reputation, nature of work does not gives room for that, fear of contracting Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), refusal by opposite sex partners among others. Most of the reasons given for not engaging in extramarital relationships were pertaining to morality and building integrity. The culture of the study area which is predominantly Yorubas, laid emphasis on the concept of morality, protection of own reputation, good name and integrity. Little wonder why an overwhelming majority of the respondents claimed that they were not involved in extramarital sexual relationship. 5.4.2. Knowlegde of Consequences of Extramarital sexual Involvement. Although an overwhelming majority of the respondents were silent on the question asked about the risk(s) and shortcomings associated with extramarital sexual activities, “risk of divorce if wife discovers the secret” top the list among the various consequences mentioned by the respondents. Some were of the opinion that there may be no financial commitment by husband regarding family support at home if he consistently engages in extramarital relationship, again, one could be exposed to the risk of physical attack by the spouse of the other woman which could lead to death and there could be sudden death through supernatural power (e. g. magun). In addition, the respondents mentioned that the person 149 can contract STIs and HIV/AIDS. This result indicated that nearly all the respondents had positive knowledge about the shortcomings or the consequences of extramarital sexual affairs, as each individual could mention one or two shortcomings associated with extramarital practice. Results also revealed that majority of the respondents have knowledge of STIs. The finding is similar with that of Orubuloye, Caldwell and Caldwell (1997) in a study conducted in South-western Nigeria. They reported that many people have knowledge of Sexually Transmitted Diseases and AIDS but often mentioned being afraid of the threats of HIV / AIDS. 5.5 PERCEPTIONS ON SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs) OR HIV OUTCOME RISK Only a few (16.9%) of those respondents who reported engaging in extramarital sexual intercourse perceived themselves to be vulnerable to STIs. This shows that the level of perceptions of the respondents on susceptibility to Sexually Trransmitted Infections were low. This finding is supported by the study conducted by Pulerwitz, Izazola-Licea and Gortmaker (2001) which explored the risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among married and cohabiting women in Mexico City, Mexico, about their partners' sexual behaviours, and found that 15% of the men reported extra-relational sex during the past year, out of which 9% perceived themselves to be vulnerable to STIs and reported condom use during last intercourse while 80% perceived no HIV risk. 5.6 SUGGESTED FACTORS TO CURB PARTICIPATION IN EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS BY MARRIED MEN. Respondents made suggestions on ways of motivating married men from disengaging in extramarital sexual relationship. Majority were of the opinion that arranging health education and seminar on dangers and negative consequences of extramarital sexual behaviours is important. Others opined that married men should be encouraged to be contended with their wives and be self disciplined. Health education Unit of FMOH should organise a sensitisation workshop on „Extramarital sexual behaviour and associated risk(s) for married men and that religious institutions and various social organisations should be encouraged to deliver health related message- stressing the consequences of extramarital behaviours such as „risk of contracting infections like HIV/AIDS‟ and sudden death through supernatural power, at their various meetings. 150 5.7 CONCLUSION The conclusion of this study is that there is a need for comprehensive health education programme on human sexuality and safety in sexual activities in Nigeria. The result of the study shows that majority of the married men who were involved in extramarital affairs were in risky sexual behaviour, and their perceptions of the risks associated with extramarital sexual liasions was very poor. However, this is very dangerous and risky to the health of the spouse at home because the wife could be infected with Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). It is therefore expected that the findings of this study would serve as baseline information towards re-designing health promotion strategies by health professionals with a view of educating the population concerned about various consequences that may come out of extramarital involvement. It is therefore concluded that comprehensive health education programme will enhance the sexual behaviour of married men very positively in Nigeria, which is believed would reduce the incidence of extramarital sexual involvement. 5.8 CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDEGE The predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour among married men in Ibadan North LGA was investigated to shed more light on the reasons why some married men get involved in extramarital sexual behaviour. Secondly, to fill the missing gap created by previous survey research works on extramarital involvement in Nigeria, by a way of extending the target variables to include a significant number of individuals who have engaged in some form of sexual or romantic behaviour outside of marriage and by not limiting the target variable to those involved in sexual intercourse alone, in contrast to some previous survey studies which had only used those individuals who had had sexual intercourse as the target variable. Hence by this extension, it has been made possible to determine the actual prevalence rate of those perpetrating in extramarital sexual involvement and by this development, contribute to knowledge in the health education and health promotion field. 5.9 RECOMMENDATIONS In line with the findings of this study it is recommended that: 1.) Couples should be educated and advised to always clarify issues regarding their health matters with trained and qualified health / medical personnels instead of holding on to some cultural taboos and wrong perceptions that could influence their sexual behaviour 151 negatively. For example beliefs and perceptions on cultural taboos about abstinence during pregnancy and post –partum periods must be discarded. 2.) Religious institutions and social organisations should organise seminars for their members periodically to address contemporary issues in marriage, such as conflict resolutions in marriage, what contributes to happiness in marriage and so forth. Religion leaders and social organisations should encourage couples to stay and live together. Where the wife is a working class, efforts should be made by the husband to arrange accommodation at the same location with the wife‟s working station. Couples living apart, and keeping long distance away from each other must be discouraged. 3.) Efforts should be geared towards educating men not to be laying much emphasis on a particular gender or sex of their children,and they should be made to understand that all children are good, so far they could be assisted and trained and given the best education. 4.) A well-articulated campaign should be designed by government to re-educate the populace more about the threat of AIDS with the aim of modifying both pre-marital and extramarital sexual behaviour, thereby reducing the risk of HIV through heterosexual relations which is the main mode of transmission in Nigeria. 5.) Further in–depth studies should be undertaken by new investigators to explore the relation between number of wives, peri and post partum abstinence, and extramarital sexual behaviour within specific communities. 6.) Married men are advised to show some understanding about their wives‟conducts and behaviours at home regardless of any period and they should support them to enable them cope with the stress associated with pregnancy, post-partum period and domestic activities.They should love their wives and show concern for their needs. This would reduce incidence of conflicts among them. 7.) Married men are advised to be cautious of the type of friends they move with. Bad company lead to bad behaviour. They should try and choose decent people (with good reputation) to copy as their mentor. 5.10 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY It is suggested that this study be replicated in other parts of the country so that more valid generalisations can be made and other variables that are not covered in this work could also be investigated. 152 REFERENCES Adegbola, O. and Babalola, O. (1999). Premarital and Extramarital Sex in Lagos, Nigeria, In: Orubuloye, I. O. and Caldwell, J. C., and Ntozi, J. P. M (eds.) 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I am conducting a study on the “Predisposing Factors to Extramarital Sexual Behaviour among married men in Ibadan North Local Government area, Ibadan, Nigeria”. The essence of the study is to identify the factors that encourage or lead married men to extramarital sexual affairs, especially among the married men in the study environment. Your candid opinion is highly essential; information given will be treated very confidential. Thank you, Fagbemi, M.O. QUESTIONNAIRE Instruction; Kindly respond to the following questions by putting the number (No).of your options that are appropriate in one of the small box opposite each question as case may be. For example: I‟am a married person, and my age at last birthday was 29yrs. Therefore, in answering the question, I will put the number (No.) of the option chosen in the small box opposite each question as shown below: 29yrs (1.) My age at last birthday……………………………………………… (2.) Marital Status: (1) Married (2) Married but Separated (3) Divorced. 1 The whole questionnaire is divided into four sections: Section I, Section II, Section III and section IV respectively. Where there are open ended questions, try to supply answers as may be applicable. SECTION I (DEMOGRAPHIC/ PERSONAL DATA) 1. Age at last birthday (in years)………………………………………………………………… 2. Marital Status: (1) Married (2) Married but Separated (3) Divorced. 3. What is your religion? (1) Christianity (2) Islam (3) Traditional Religion (4) Others (Specify) (………………….) 4. Educational Status: (1) No formal education. (2) Primary education. (3) Secondary education (4) Tertiary Education 170 5. Type of Marriage: (1) Polygamous (2) Monogamous 6. What is your Occupation? (1) Farming (2) Clerical job (3) Tailoring (4) Driving (5) Trading (6) Teaching (7) Photography (8) Hair dressing (9) Health worker (10) Pharmacy 11) Banking / Finance (12) Motor Mechanic technician (13)Electrical / Rewiring (14) Others (specify) ____________________________ 7. In which setting do you work? (1) Private establishment (2) Govt. establishment (3) Self employed (4) Departmental store (5) Motor park (6) Hospital / clinics (7) Petrol-chemical / Allied institution (8) Agric sector (9) Others (Specify) ____________________ 8. Tribe: (1) Yoruba (2) Igbo (3) Hausa (4) Fulani (5) Others (Specify) ____________ 9. How many children do you have? ____________________________ 10a. No of male __________________ 10b No of female ________________ SECTION II OCCUPATION AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT Instruction: Kindly attend to the questions below, by supplying the right answer to each of the questions asked and where there are options, tick the most appropriate one that accompany each questions.Do not pick more than only one answer. 1. When exactly do you set out in the morning to start the day‟s job? (1) 5:30am (2) 6:00am (3) 6:30am (4) 7:00am (5) 7:30am (6) 8:00am (7) 12noon 2. Do you do a shift job? (1) Yes (2) No 3a. Do you observe recess at work? (1) Yes (2) No 3b. If your answer to the above is “Yes”, where exactly do you observe the recess? (1) At the place of work (in the office, shop, staff out) (2) In my own house. (3) At my girl friend‟s house or office/ shop. (4) At a Beer Parlour/ Hotel (Restaurant). (5) Other place (specify)………………………………. 4a. When exactly do you close from work? (1) 1:30pm (2) 2:30pm (3) 3:30pm (4) Between 3:30pm -6:00pm (5) 7:30pm (6) 8:00pm (7) 8:30pm (8) 9:00pm (9) 9:30pm 171 4b. When you close from work, do you go straight home? (1)Yes (2) No 4c. If your answer to the above is “No”, where do you stop before going home? (1) At a social clubs‟ house. (2) Game centre (Draft and “AYO” Game) (3) Woman friend‟s shop. (4) Video/ Cinema spot. (5) Football field. (6) Palm wine / beer parlor- to merry with friends.(7) Cyber café. (8) Another business centre. 5a. Do you think Occupation and work environment can influence extramarital Sexual behaviour? (1) Yes (2) No 5b. If your answer to the above is „Yes‟ then mention which type of job? (1) Occupation that involve frequent travelling and leaving the spouse for long period of time. (2) Any work that involve frequent transfer and shifting of family base. (3) Working environment that has the tendency to influence one‟s social life e.g. motor parks, hotels, secretariat and schools. (4) Occupations that provide such social services as film acting, music, hotelier, Food -vendor (etc). (5) Any job that involve shift duty or call. 6. Do you smoke cigarette? (1) Yes (2) No 7a. Do you take Alcoholic drinks? (1.) Yes (2.)No 7b. If your answer is Yes, which of these alcoholic beverages do you drink? (1) Lager beer (2) Stout (3) Dry gin (4) Tonic wine (5) Burukutu (6) Seepe (Herbs in wine preparation / Concortion) (Agbo Jedi). SECTION III SOCIO- CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR.  Relationship at home / Husband living with Wife / Wives: 8. How many wife/ wives do you have? (1) One wife (2) Two wives (3) Three wives (4) More then three wives. 9a. Do you have your wife/ all your wives living with you in Ibadan? (1)Yes (2) No 172 9b. If your answer to the above question is “No”, where does your wife or wives stay or live? (1) Outside Oyo state. (2) Nearby country. (3) Within Oyo state, but in another town/ city (4) In Ibadan, but in a separate home. Note: If your answer to question No 9.a. above is “Yes”, skip questions Nos 9c., 10,11a, 11b, 11c. Go straight to question No 12. 9c. Why is she or why are they not all living with you in Ibadan? (1) Because of her/ their job commitment. (2) Lack of fund to rent adequate apartment to contain all the family members in Ibadan. (3) To avert the problem of incessant quarrels among the wives (because I have more than one wife.) (4) I prefer separate apartment for each of them. (5) She doesn‟t want to move with me to Ibadan. (6) Other reasons (specify)……………………………….. 10. If your wife is/ wives are living outside Ibadan, how frequent does she or do they come to you at Ibadan? (1) Very frequently. (2) Frequently. (3) Occasionally. (4) Once in a while. (5) Not at all. 11a. Do you visit your wife or any of your wives (not living with you) regularly? (1) Yes (2) No 11b. If your answer is “Yes”, how often do you visit her? (i.e. your wife/wives not living with you) (1) Every month end (2) Twice in a month (3) Every week end. (4) Anytime I have sexual desire (5) Once in a while. (6) Twice in a week. 11c. If your answer to question No 11.a. above is „‟No‟‟, why don‟t you visit her / visit them. (1) Because we quarrel and the dispute is yet to be settled. (2) She is very far away (outside the country) (3) We have separated form each other (4) She is flirting about (5) It is just because I don‟t have time (6) Other reason (Specify)………………… 12. What is your wife‟s Occupation? (1) Tailoring (2) Trading (3) Clerical job (in office) (4) Farming (5) Teaching (6) Nursing (7) Hair dressing (8) Food vendor (9) Prison warden (10) Patient Medicine Vendor. (11) No job (A complete housewife), (10) Others (specify)……..... 173  Loneliness : 13a. Is there any occasion when suddenly your job has taken you far distant away from home and there was no opportunity to take your wife or any of your wives with you? (1) Yes (2) No Note: If your answer to question No 13a. is „‟NO‟‟- skip question No. 13b. 13b. If your answer to question No.13a (above) is “Yes‟‟, how did you manage the issue of “loneliness‟‟ at that period? (1) I always go out with my friends to recreation club. (2) I quickly get myself attached to a young woman near our workshop there. (3) I always go to the Beer Parlour/palm wine joint after work, together with my colleagues. (4) I tried to make friends with people around including young ladies to keep my company. (5) I make regular phone call to my wife at home. (6) In the evening, I always go to the field to play a game. (7) I always stroll out together with collegel girls and young ladies to watch films. (8) I keep myself at home watching T.V and Video. (9) I always go to the Cyber café to browse (10) Other activities. (Specify)……………………………………………  Social relationship with opposite sex 14a. Do you always find time to relate, play and make love as expected with your home based wife when you are together at home? (a) Yes (b) No Note: If your answer to question No. 14a (above) is “No”, skip Question Nos. 14b & 14c.below. 14b. If your answer to the above is “Yes”, how frequent then do you have sex or make love with your wife at home? (1) Regularly, every weekend. (2) Not regularly. (3) Very often, during the week. (4) At every night, during the weekdays (5) Just occasionally (6) Once in a while 14c. When last did you have sexual contact with your wife/wives at home? (1) Last month. (2) Last three weeks. (3) Two weeks ago. (4) Just last week. (5) Last weekend.(6) Yesterday. (7) Last night. (8) More than two months ago. (9) More than a year ago. 174 15a. Do you have a woman, aside your wife who assist you financially? (1) Yes (2) No Note: If your Answer to Question No 15a (above) is “No” Skip Question No 15b & 15c below. 15b. If your answer (to the question No.15a) is “Yes”, who is that woman? (1) My own mother. (2) My elder sister. (3) A woman philanthropist. (4) A sugar Mummy. 15c. What is the occupation of that woman? (1) Food vendor (2) Cloth seller (3) GSM operator (4) Trading in other Business. (5) Office lady. (6) Teaching. (7) Nursing. (8) Banking. (9) A Hospital worker. (10) Accounting. (11) Petrol station attendant (12) other job (specify)………………………………….  Cultural Perspectives and Beliefs about Sexuality and reproductive health problems: 16. Whenever your wife is pregnant or nursing an infant child, what do you do to satisfy your sexual urge at those periods? (1) I always try to have sexual intercourse despite her condition.(2) I always try to abstain. (3) I used to go after another woman after all “man no be wood”. (4) I have more than one wife, I can go to others. (5) I have a woman friend that cares for me. (6) I used to go out to meet school girls whom I have pleasure relating with socially. 17. Do you share the belief that „husbands should not have sex with his wife during pregnancy or when breastfeeding? (1) Yes (2) No 18a. Has your wife or any of your wives been having problem of infertility? (1) Yes (2) No 18b. If “Yes” (to the question above), what do you want to do next? (1) I will endure the situation and accept my fate. (2) I will try to keep another woman outside (secretly) perhaps I may have children through her (3) I have already gotten a woman outside and same has been pregnant. (4) I love my wife, and I don‟t want do divorce because of infertility. (5) I will keep my wife at home, cared for her, but establish relationship with another woman outside. 18c. If your answer is “No”, do you still want to have more children? (1) Yes (2) No 175  Various Marital Problems / Disputes between spouses. 19a. Have you ever experienced or noticed some awkward behaviours or terrible problems traceable to your wife at home, that made you decided to involve in extramarital sexual relationship? (1) Yes (2) No Note: If your answer to the above question is “No” skip questions 19b and 20, and go straight to question 21 19b. If your answer to the above question is “Yes” what are those terrible and awkward behaviours or problems observed from your wife that could influence your decision to participate in extramarital sexual affairs? (1) Frequent quarrel with neighbors and other tenants including my own parents. (2) Always quarrelling with me on momentary matters. (3) Poor management of my home valuables and negligence about home cleanness and hygiene. (4) None obedience to my instruction. (5) She doesn‟t want to see my relations. (6) Has not given birth to any child. (7) Always falling sick. (8) She flirt all about. (9) Since I married her, I have not experience any progress in my business. (10) She has not given birth to a male child.  Advice and example from friends, parents and relations / significant orders 20. Have you ever been advised by anybody to divorce or separate from your wife because of any of those problems highlighted above? (1)Yes (2) No 21a. Do you have anybody whom you are trying to copy as your mentor? (1)Yes (2) No 21b. If your answer is “Yes”, who is that individual? (1) My elder brother. (2) My Uncle/Cousin. (3) My own father. (4) My boss. (5) One of my friends. 21c. Has any of the people whom you have chosen as your mentor ever involved in extramarital sexual relationship? (1) Yes (2) No Note: If Your Answer to Question No 22 a. (Below) is “NO” skip Question Nos. 22b, 22c, 23 a, 23b, 23c, 24a, and 24 b. Go straight and answer Questions Nos. 25 and 26 of this section. 176 SECTION IV SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AND EXTRAMARITAL RELATIONS 22a. Have you been engaging in sexual relationship with another woman or a lady, aside your home based wife/wives? (1) Yes (2) No 22b. At present, do you have a woman friend or a lady whom you are socially or morally relating with on friendly basis, aside your home based wife / wives? (1) Yes (2) No 22c. If your answer (to question No 22 b.) is „Yes,‟ what are your reason(s) for the interest? (1) Because such relationship usually meet various social and psychological needs. (2) Because of the excited feeling during sexual experience of the affair. (3) Because of sexual fulfillment, friendship and fun of it. (4) Most woman friends are always ready to assist men financially during the time of need. 23a. If you claimed that you have been engaging in extramarital sexual affairs, how and when do you normally arrange for this kind of sexual contact? (1) Yes, during the time my wife goes to work. (2) When my wife traveled away. (3) I used to visit the lady /or the woman in her own very home. (4) I used to arrange our social contact at the hotel (near my very office /working place). (5) Whenever I travel away from home. 23b. Which class of a woman do you prefer for your sexual engagement? (1) Any young school Girl/College girl (Aristos). (2) Any young beautiful working class lady. (3) Any matured woman trader (beautiful). (4) Young beautiful commercial sex workers. 23c. How many girl friends or woman friend or sexual partners do you have? (1) One girl friend. (2) Two girl friends. (3) More than two girl friends. (4) One woman friend/partner. (5) Two woman sexual partners. (6) More than two woman friends / Sexual partner. 24a. Why have you decided to cheat on your wife? Why having sexual relationship with another woman aside your home based wife? (1) My wife has not given birth to a male child. (2) I did it to please myself. (3) My wife always traveled and doesn‟t care for me. 177 (4) My wife is Old now, and I needed a young lady to help satisfy my sexual desire. (5) A need for sexual variety. 24b. Have you noticed your wife with extramarital sexual behaviour at one time or the other before? (1) Yes (2) No (3) I don‟t know 25 Assuming you are married to only one wife and this same wife have 4 children-all females, will you then prefer to go out after another woman or engage in extramarital sexual relations just for the sake of having a male child to be in the family? (1) Yes (2) No 26. Looking at this issue from the general perspective, what are the reasons why married men engage in Extramarital Sexual Relationships? (1) Inability to maintain a satisfying emotional relationship; with spouse over a long period of time. (2) A need for sexual variety. (3) Loss of passion, Love, care and desire that existed in the beginning of marital relationship. (4) Apathy towards spouse at home. (5) Financial problems (6) Problem of giving birth to a male child. (7) Need to re-experience the intense level of passion and the feeling of been in love. (8) All of the above. SECTION V ASSESSMENT OF PERCEPTIONS FOR RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EXTRAMARITAL SEX.  Sexual practices and perceptions of risk involved in Extramarital sexual relationship. 1. If you had been having sexual relationship with another woman, aside your wife, do you always make use of a condom? (1) Yes (2) No 2 a. If your answer is “Yes”, which type? (1) Male condom (2) Female condom 2 b. If your answer is “No”, why didn‟t you? i. …………………………………………………………………………... ii. ………………………………………………………………………….. 3. What do you perceived to be the risk(s) and shortcomings that is associated with extramarital sexual activities? (1) Risk of divorce if the wife discovers the secret. (2) Infection such as Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) e.g. Gonorrhea, HIV/AIDS. (3) Reduced family commitment by the husband especially towards the care of children at home. (4) There may be physical attack by the spouse of the woman whom he relates with 178 secretly. (5) Sudden death through supernatural power (Magun). (6) Options 2 and 3 above. (7) Options 4 and 5 above. (8) All of the above. SECTION VI PERCEPTIONS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION OR HIV OUTCOME RISK 1. If you have been engaging in extramarital sexual relationship, do you perceive you‟re susceptible to any Sexually Transmitted Infection or HIV outcome risk? (1) Yes (2) No 2. How do you perceived the seriousness of the threat of any Sexually Transmitted Infection (STIs) such as Gonorrhea, Syphilis, including HIV infection that could be acquired through perpetration in extramarital sexual practice? (A.) Gonorrhea: (1) Very deadly. (2) Deadly. (3) Very Serious. (4) Serious. (5) Not serious (B.) Syphilis: (1) Very deadly. (2) Deadly. (3) Very Serious. (4) Serious. (5) Not serious (C.) HIV infection: (1) Very deadly. (2) Deadly. (3) Very Serious. (4) Serious. (5) Not serious 3. What are your suggestions that could help to curb married men from engaging in extramarital sexual relation? i) Health education seminar on Extramarital sexual behaviours and associated risks should be arranged by health department of each Local Government. ii.) Health Education Unit of the FMOH should organise a sensitisation workshop on dangers inherent in extramarital sexual behaviour and risk of infections such as HIV/AIDS. iii.) NGOs whose major interest is on human reproductive health development should distribute handbills on the consequences of extramarital sexual behaviours such as divorce, HIV/ AIDS, sudden death (e .t .c.). 179 iv.) Marital guidance and counselling services should be undertaken by religion institutions to encourage married men to be contended with their wives and be self- disciplined. v.) Parents, religious institution ministers, and marriage counsellors in the registry should try and encourage the new couples to always reside together and discourage distant relationships that could orchestrate the development of suspicions, which could result into marital disputes and later extramarital sexual involvement. . End. 180 APPENDIX B AN INFORMED CONSENT FORM FOR QUESTIONNAIRE I am Mr. FAGBEMI, Moses Odunlade, a MPH student in the Department of Health Promotion and Education, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. I am carrying out a study on „The Predisposing Factors to Extramarital Sexual Behaviour among Married men in Ibadan North Local Government Area‟. I am therefore requesting for your participation in the study. A set of questions will be given to you, some of which you may likely find to be interesting but sensitive, and a bit difficult to answer. Please note that your responses will be kept very confidential. You will not need to mention your name, but you will be given a serial number. Any information given will not in any way be used against you, but rather, it will be used to protect you as an autonomous person who has the right to decide on issues concerning his life. Your candid opinion is expected. You are free to accept to participate in the study or not to participate. You are free to withdraw from the study during the course if you wish without victimization. Thank you for your cooperation. CONSENT: Now that the details information about the study has been explained to me and I fully understood the content of the study process, I am ready to participate in the study. ------------------------------------ --------------------------- Signature of participants/Date Signature of interviewer 181 APPENDIX C A FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE FOR SAMPLED MARRIED MEN IN IBADAN NORTH LGA. FGD GUIDE Introduction: Good morning to you all. My name is (First name only), one of the research assistant and my colleagues are …………………………........................................................................................, …and.……………………………................................ We are here to find out from your group what you know and understand about „extramarital affairs‟ and more importantly the reasons why some men go after extramarital sex. And to document your perception, opinion and beliefs as married men about the risk factors of STD/HIV especially in relation to extramarital relations, which can be observed among us. Since we are of the same sex, we should all relax and open up during the discussion. We shall be brief and not take much of your time. Kindly permit me to make use of a Tape Recorder so that we could be able to listen to your important points later. Also, I will be jotting down some points. All information shall be kept confidential. The contribution of every member is very important to us please (Pause and watch reactions). Now, may we know one another by our first and nick names (Participants self introduction). SECTION 1: DISCUSSION TOPIC: EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR- why getting involved? QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION a.) Is there any one among us here who had one Can you please tell us what lead you to such time or the other got involved in extramarital sexual behaviour? relationship? b.) In your Opinion. What do you think are the Request for explanation. Ask for what lead main reasons why married men go out with other many married men to go for extramarital sex? women outside their matrimonial home? 182 SECTION 2: DISCUSSION TOPIC: OCCUPATION AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION a.). In what ways does Occupation and working Mention the ways one by one and discuss how environment influence extramarital sexual each influence extramarital sexual behaviour? behaviour? SECTION 3: DISCUSSION TOPIC: SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS THAT COULD INFLUENCE EXTRAMARITAL SEX. No.1:  Issue of Husband and Wife living apart: QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION a.) What is the danger inherent in a couple who What do you think can come out of a couple live some distance away from each other? (a family) who decide to be living apart? No.2:  Issue of Loneliness and meeting Sexual need: QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION If you have just been transferred out of your c.) How can you as a matured married adult family location and compulsorily you are to manage the issue of loneliness especially if your report immediately at your new station. How job suddenly takes you away from home? would you manager the issue of loneliness and cope with your sexual urge? No.3:  Cultural Perspectives and beliefs about Human Sexuality: QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION (c.) When your wife is pregnant or she is nursing a What do you think most men do to satisfy baby, how would you satisfy your sexual urge at their sexual urge whenever their wives are those periods? pregnant or she is breastfeeding a baby? 183 No.4:  Various marital problems / disputes between spouses: QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION (d.) What are some of the factors causing conflicts Mention the factors one by one and discuss among husband and wife? how it causes conflicts among husband and wife? No.5:  Effect of frequent quarrels: QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION e.) What effect does frequent/ constant quarrels To what extent do you go to meet your sexual between a man and his wife have on their sexual urge whenever your wife seems to be relationship? quarrelling with you over a matter and turn down your request for a fun? SECTION 4: DISCUSSION TOPIC: PERCEPTION OF RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH EXTRAMARITAL SEX QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTIONS a.) What are the risk(s) or dangers inherent in extramarital Mention those risk(s) which are sexual practice? involved in extramarital sexual behaviour? b.) What are those likely outcomes of extramarital What do you think would happen if relations on the family if the secret of relationship become your wife at home should get to know opened? that you have a woman friend outside? 184 SECTION 5: DISCUSSION TOPIC: PERCEPTION ON SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION PROBING QUESTION a.) As a married man, who is very sexually active Don‟t you think you are vulnerable to and handsome, admired and loved by many women, Sexually Transmitted Diseases when you what measure can you adopt to ensure safety in your have sexual relationship with a woman who relationship with those who loves you from outside? is not your wife? b.) What are the negative consequences for a married Mention those things that could befall a man, engaging in extramarital sex without using person who sleep with another man‟s wife protective means? without using a condom? Thank you, God blesses you all. 185 APPENDIX D INFORMED CONSENT FOR THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) I am MR. FAGBEMI, Moses Odunlade, a MPH student in the Detartment of Health Promotion and Education, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan. I am conducting an educative research work on the predisposing factors to extramarital sexual behaviour in Ibadan North LGA. I have three men with me on this field to assist in collection of in-depth information on concepts, perceptions and ideas from you. They are to work with me to ask questions from you and to record your responses during the discussion. Please note that your responses will be kept very confidential. A tape recorder would be used to assist in capturing information. The contribution of every member is very important. You do not need to mention your real name but you can indicate your nick or workshop name. There is no wrong or right answer to questions. It is a discussion. Nobody is going to shout you down. Kindly indicate your willingess to participate in the discussion by endorsing this consent form. Thank you. Consent: Now that the objectives of this study had been explained to me. I am ready to take part in the focus group discussion. Nick name / Workshop name: ................................................................................ ----------------------------------- --------------------------- Signature of participants / Date Signature of interviewer 186