.-1--9- VoJ. 5No.5 SINoo 22 .;October, 201 J UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY fricsn Res arch An International Multi-Disciplinary Journal, Ethiopia Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 ISSN 1994-9057 (Print) ISSN 2070-0083 (Online) Aims and Scope African Research Review (AFRREV) is a multi-disciplinary Journal of the International Association of African Researchers and Reviewers (IAARR) with its base in Ethiopia. Its aim is to publish scholarly research outputs in and on Africa. Its focus is on the broad areas of Africa Development and issues in various Academic Disciplines. A...~_REV will also publish research monographs, feature articles, brief notes, comments on published articles and book review. The journal is published about four times a year (January, April, July & October) and other issues as the case may be. Editor Dr. B. J. Ojo Senior Programmes & Projects Officer African Academy of Languages (ACALAN) African Union Commission BP 10 Koulouba-Bamako, Mali babaoj 02002 @vahoo.com, Associate Editor Dr. Mukhtari Ado Jibril Department of Educational Management, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia majibri12001 @yahoo.co.uk Managing Editor Dr. Nneka Umera-Okeke Department of English School of General Studies Federal Polytechnic, Oko Anambra State, Nigeria nne.supreme@yahoo.com; jafrrev@yahoo.cofi1 Technical Editor Dr. Sri Ranganayakula Srinivas Department of Pedagogical Sciences Haramaya University Dire Dawa, Ethiopia srn.cnu@gmail.com MW G1. M Copyright © iAARR 201 J: www.afrrevjo.com .·1\ v I '. indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info ----~ UNIVERSITY OF IB DAN LIBRARY African Research Review Vol. 5(5), Serial No. 22. October, 2011 Editorial Board Members Prof Belay Kassa - President, Haramaya University, P. O. Box 138. Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. belavk@hotmail.com Prof Venkata Ramayya - Mechanical Engineering Dept. Jimma University, Ethiopia. anchaven@yahoo.com Prof Alexander Raju - Department of English, Bahir Dar University. Ethiopia. dr.alexanderraju@yahoo.co.in Prof Joe! B. Babalola - Department of Educational Administration, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria ioelbabalola'lOOO@yahoo.co.uk Prof 1. 0. Ogbuagu - FICCON. FCAI, FlSMN. Provost, Federal College of Education (Technical) Umunze, Anambra State. Ms. Jenifer Ward - Assistant Professor - Department of Law. Bahir Dar Uni versity, Ethiopia ileighward3 @yahoo.com Dr Clara O. Obiagwu - Acting Provost, Nwafor Orizu College of Education. Nsugbe. P.M.B. l734, Onitsha, Anarnbra State. Nigeria clarao@afrrevjo.un! Dr. O. E. Olubusoye - Department of Statistics, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. oe.oJ ubusove@mail.ui.edu.nQ. Engr. Dr Wubislzet Jekale - Director, Construction Sector Capacity Building Programme (CSCBP), Department of Construction Management. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. jcmc@ethionet.et ' Rev. Fr. W. N. Ofojebe (Ph.D) -Departrnent of Educational Foundations/ Administration, Anambra State University, UIi, Nigeria; Education Secretary, Catholic Diocese of Awka, Anambra state, Nigeria. frwence@yahoo.com Dr. C. Arum -Department of CiviJ Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure. arumcnwcilrist@yailoo.co.uk Copyright © fAARR 2011: wwv••.a..frrevjo.com 11 Indexed African journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review Vol. 5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 Dr. Joseph Bosire - Department of Curriculum and Educational Management. Egerton University, P. O. Box 16568. Nakuru, Kenya ousire] @vahuo.com Cell phone - +:254 724 249 730; Office - +~54 065 32369 Dr Nestlier Nachafiya Alii - Department of English, University of Jos. Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. nesthert~ @yahoo.com Advisory Editors Dr Dessie Nedaw - Faculty of Science and Technology. Dept of Geology, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia Dr Kefelegn Kebede - Dept of Animal, Range Land & Wildlife Science, Faculty of Dryland Agriculture, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia Dr Joy Obunadike - Department of Primary E(j",~;,t:·::mSL'j: >;. Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe DJ Nigussie Haregewgn - Dept of Land Resources Mgt and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Dryland Agriculture, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia Dr. Bidemi Okanlawon -Departrnent of English Obaferru Awolowo Uni versity, Ile- !fe, Nigeria Dr. S. Tesfaye - Dean Faculty of Education, Awasa University, Awasa, Ethiopia. Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com III Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info -" ~--------. UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review VoL.5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 Guide to Authors The African Research Review publishes original research output in the areas of Arts, Education, Social Sciences, Pure and applied Sciences, Engineering and Medical Sciences and Law. It is devoted to disseminating results of original research in these fields. Review papers and short communications on topical issues of contemporary importance are also accepted. Africa research review is published four times a year in January, April, July and October. However, there is room for special editions as the need arises. Manuscripts All papers should be clear and concise (word processed), double spaced on A4-size paper (210mrnx297mm) on one side of the paper only; allowing wide margins on all sides. The font size should be 12 point and the font style is New Times Roman. No paper should exceed 5000 (five thousand) words including references and illustrations. All tables and illustrations should come at the end of the work with proper referencing in-text and not exceeding five in an article. Organization of Manuscript Manuscripts should be arranged in the following sequence: A. Title Page This should contain the following information: 1. A concise and information title of the paper, not exceeding 15words ii. Name (s) of Author (s) (Last names first plus initials iii. Full Postal address, e-mail and phone number of the author or the corresponding author in case of multiple authors. ' B. Abstract The abstract should be written in English and must be between 150 to 200 words. It should indicate the objectives, scope, major findings and conclusion of the study. C. Introduction Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com IV Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review Vol. 5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 D. Methodology E. Result F. Discussion: This may be combined with results G. 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Online citation must be followed by the date retrieved. All references cited in the text must be listed alphabetically by author's surname followed by initials under "Reference" Works not cited should not appear in the reference section of your work. Please, no end notes and foot notes. Articles which did not follow this format will be returned to the author. Assessment Each paper will be assessed by a minimum of two reviewers to be appointed by the Editorial Board. Final selection of papers for publication in the Journal will be based on paper originality, technical quality, use of language and overall contribution to knowledge. The Editorial Board reserves the right to accept, reject, or suggest modifications to the articles submitted for publication, and to make suitable stylistic adjustments. High quality, Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.coni v Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol. info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review Vol. 5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 20J J academic integrity, ethics and morals are expected from the authors and discussants. Articles are accepted throughout the year. In addition, authors must give the declaration as to the authenticity of the work submitted. This declaration should state that the article or work submitted for publication in African Research Review (www.afrrevjo.com) is an original work; acknowledgement of works cited or used in writing articles properly done, etc. Remember that by maintaining academic integrity we not only do the right thing but also help the growth, development and recognition of African scholarship. Page Charges and Colour Illustration Articles accepted for publication will attract a publication cost to be communicated to those whose articles have been accepted for publication. Each of the extra copy for co-authors could be collected at the cost of 200 Birr or USD 20, or N2500.00 excluding postage. Authors will bear the cost of printing illustration in colour. Papers prepared as detailed above should be sent to: The Editor, African Research Review Dr. n.r. Ojo. Senior Programmes & Projects Officer African Academy of Languages (ACALAN) African Union Commission BP 10 Koulouba-Bamako, Mali E-mail: babaoj02002@yahoo.com;orjafrrev@yahoo.com Phone: +22376907074 All articles published can be assessed online at http://vvww.ajol.info and http://www.afrrevjo.com Subscription Rates The price of single issue including postage is USD 100 for individuals and USD200 for institutions. All enquiries and correspondences should be directed to the editor (See E- mail above) or the Managing Editor nne.supreme@vah)o.com; jafrrev@vahoo.com Phone: +2348063147052; +2348083299552 Copyright © lAARR 20 J J: www.afrrevjo.com VI Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review Vol. 5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 Contents 1. The Fulani Jihad and its Implication for National Integration and Development in Nigeria Aremu,1. O. (1-12) http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.vSiS.1 2. Ife Origin Influence in the History of Ijebu People of South-Western Nigeria Ayinde, A. (13-24) http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.vSiS.2 • 3. The Resource Control Debate: Enthroning Parasitism or Instituting Self-Determination Ikeji, C. C. (25-35) http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.vSiS.3 4. The Place of Bonny in Niger Delta History Orji, K. E. (36-45) http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.vSiS.4 5. The Economic Dimensions of The Niger Delta Ethnic Conflicts Omojimite, B. U. (46-55) http://dx.doi.org/ 10.4314/afrrev. vSiS.S 6. Oil Exploration and Ethnic Militia activities in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria Okumagba, P. (56-67) http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.vSiS.6 7. Environmental Law and Underdevelopment In the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria Ogbonnaya, U. M. (68-82) http://dx.doi.org/ 10.4314/afrrev. vSiS.7 8. Significance of Kaduna River to Kaduna Refining and Petrochemicals Complex: Some Checks and Balances Aderogba, K. A. (83-98) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.vSiS.8 Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com Vll Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info " " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review Vol. 5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 9. CUrbing Electoral Violence In Nigeria: The Imperative of Political Education .Obakhedo, N. O. (99-110) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.vsis.9 10. Corporate Governance: Insider Information, the Bane of Financial Melt-Down? Amadasu, D. E. (111-121) http://dx.doi.orgll0.4314/afrrev.vsis.l0 l l . Developing Archetypal Machines For A Sequence of Food-Slurry Processing Operations: An Overview Simolowo 0. E (122-136) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.vsis.l1 12. The Relationship between Motivation and the Job Satisfaction of Managers in the Retail Business in Nigerian Oparanma. A. O. (137-151) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.vsis.12 13. Determinants of Residential Property Value 10 Nigeria - A Neural Network Approach Igbinosa.S. 0. (152-168) http://dx.doi.orgIlO.4314/afrrev.vsis.13 14. Development Control in Lagos State: an Assessment of Public Compliance to Space Standards for Urban Development Aluko, 0. (169-184) http://dx.doi.org/lO.4314/afrrev.vSi5.14 l5. Effectiveness of After-care-services 10 the Reintegration and Supply of Labour after Incarceration in the Prisons: Lagos and Oyo States Prison Command Experience Ajala E.M. & Oguntuase, A.E. (185-198) http://dx.doi.org/ 1O.4314/afrrev.vsis .15 JJAUm#a: Copyright © IAARR 2011 www.afrrevjo.com Vlll Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review Vol. 5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 201 j 16. Gender Disparity in Criminal Behaviour In Ado- Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria Oluwadare C. T. & Agboola, A. E. (199-211) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afnev.v5i5.16 17. Landscape Composition: Using Geometric Shapes From the Straw Medium En enajor, M. E. (212-222) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.v5i5.17 18. Effect of Rainfall Variability on Water Supply In Ikeduru L.G.A. ofImo State, Nigeria Onyenechere, E. C, Azuwike, D. O. & Enwereuzor, A. 1. (223-241) http://dx.doi.ondl0.4314/afrrev.v5i5.18 19. The Cybernetic Metaphor in Organisation Theory: Epistemological Implications Okojie, 1. 0 (242-250) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afnev.v5i5.19 20. Soil Management Methods under Rice Cultivation in Ndokwa Grassland Soils of Delta State, Nigeria Efe, S. I. & Ugboma, P. P. (251-263) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.v5i5.20 21. Prevalence of Malaria among Children 1 - 10 Years Old in Communities in Awka North Local Government Area, Anambra State South East Nigeria Nwaorgu 0. C. & Orajaka B. N. (264-281) http://dx.doi.org/l 0.4314/afrrev. v5i5 .21 22. Medicinal and Socio-Cultural Importance of Costus Afer (Ker Grawl) in Nigeria Omokhua, G.E., Godwin-Egein, M. I & Okereke, V. C (282-2&7) http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v5i5.22 23. Psychosocial Adjustment Needs of Menopausal Women Dimkpa, D. 1. (288-302) http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev. v5i5.73 1 Copyright © lAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com IX Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY African Research Review \/01. 5(5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 Evaluation of Value System and Its Effects on Nigeria Education: A Philosophical Approach Osaat, S. D. & Omordu. C. (303-314) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afnev.vSi5.24 25. Availability and Use of lCT in South-Western Nigeria Colleges of Education t-u« A. (315-331) http://dx.doi.org/lO.4314/afrrev. v5i5.25 The Effect of Academic Advising on Academic Performance of University Students in Kenyan Uni versi ties Muola, 1. M., Ma it'i.-c, R. & Mwinti. A. M. (332-345) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.v5iS.26 27. Enhancing Children's Development through Play: a Task that Must Be Achieved in Early Childhood Education Uduchukwu, A. N. (346-356) http://dx.doi.org/ l0.4314/afrrev. v5i5.27 28. Perceived and Actual Learning Difficulties of Students in Secondary School Mathematics Udousoro, U. 1. (357-366) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev. v5i5.28 29. Work Environment and Productivity among Primary School Teachers in Nigeria Nakpodia, E. D. (367-381) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.v5iS.29 30. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Success of Secondary School Principals in Rivers State, Nigeria Ekeh, P. U. & OLadayo, 0. T. (382-393) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.v5i5.30 Copyright © lAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com x Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info " UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 31. A Conceptual Analysis of School Sports Development In Nigeria AIL/ko, K. & Adodo, S. M. (394 403) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.vSiS.31 32. Secondary School Students Preferences for Instructional Strategies for Sex Education Momodu, A. O. (404-411) http://dx.doi.orf!/l 0.4314/afrrev. v5iS .32 33. A Survey of Teachers' and Students' Perception of Sexual Harassment in Tertiary Institutions of Edo State, Nigeria . lmoniklie, 1., Idoglio. P. & Aluede, 0. (412-423 ) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afnev.vSi5.33 34. The Challenges of Teaching and Learning Sociology of Religion in Nigeria Uche, O. O. C (424-440) http://dx.doi.org/l0.4314/afrrev.vSiS.34 35. Beyond the Moral Panic: The Good Governance Option to Youth Socio-Economic Empowerment in Nigeria Abe, Toyin (441-456) http:// dx.doi. org/ 10.4 314/afnev. vS is.35 Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.coni Xl Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011 ISSN 1994-9057 (Print) ISSN 2070--0083 (Online) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v5i5.15 Effectiveness of After-care-services in the Reintegration and Supply of Labour after Incarceration in the Prisons: Lagos and Oyo States Prison Command Experience (Pp. 185-198) Ajala E. M. - Department of Social Work, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. +234 8035653135 Email: majekajala@yahoo.com Oguntuase, A. E. - Controller of Prison, Lagos Command, Nigeria Abstract Offenders released from correctional institutions are confronted by social, economic and personal challenges that tend to become obstacles to a crime- free lifestyle. Some of these challenges are as a result of the consequences of incarceration and the difficulty of transiting back into the community. It is along this background that this study investigated the effectiveness of After- Care service in the rehabilitation and supply of labour into the economy by ex-offenders in Oyo and Lagos state commands of the Nigerian prison service. The research adopted the descriptive survey research design. A purposive random sampling method was used to select 450 respondents. The main instrument used for the study is a sigle questionnaire with five sub- sections, each sub section serving as an independent instrument. Data were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Findings showed that space acquisition and supervision programmes had effect on reintegration and supply of labour into the workplace (F= 76.565; p< 0.05and F=29.630; p< 0.05 respectively), while provision of tools programme does not have Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 185 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011. Pp. 185-198 significantly effect on reintegration and supply of labour by ex-offender (F= 1.135; p>0.05).It was recommended that the combination of the treatments will solve the problem of recidivism when applied jointly on individual ex- offenders. Key words: Effectiveness, After-care-service, Reintegration, Labour supply, Prisons Introduction In recent years, more emphasis has been placed on designing comprehensive interventions, based on a continuity of care, to provide consistent assistance to offenders within and beyond prison. There is a recognition that preparation for reintegration should commence before the offenders’ release. After their release, interventions should support their immediate transition from the prison to the community and reinforce the gains achieved through in prison treatment and continue until a successful reintegration is completed (Fox, 2002). This approach is often referred to as “after-care”, a system wide mode of intervention (Borzycki & Makkai, 2007). All interventions, regardless of their method, are best delivered as part of an integrated program designed to address an individual offender’s specific issues and challenges. Renewed attention has been given to “strength-based” approaches to make use of personal and community assets in order to help released offenders face their challenges and successfully reintegrate into the community, including the workplace (Maruna & LeBel, 2002). According to Harper and Chitty (2004), the primary criminogenic needs that must be addressed by institutional and community based treatment services are related to: education, employment, accommodation, drugs and alcohol, mental health, social networks, cognitive skills, and attitudes. Offenders released from confinement encounter a myriad of challenges with respect to securing employment. This is accounted for by personal factors such as low self-esteem, low motivation, skills deficit, lack of training, mental illness, and substance abuse; a lack of stable accommodation; absence of family support and a poor employment record (Visher, Winterfield & Coggeshall, 2005; Rakis, 2005; Graffam, Shinkfield, Lavelle & McPherson, 2004). Most successful approach in reducing recidivism among offenders, both immediately upon release into the community and over the long term, is prison based and community-based intervention ( MacKenzie,1997). This intervention might be in terms of helping them to settle down and be engaged Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 186 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Effectiveness of After-care-services in the Reintegration and Supply of Labour ... in something productive and beneficial to the general populace. This idea was supported by Visher, et al.(2005), that obtaining legal employment is one of the best predictors of the post-release success of ex-prisoners. More importantly, offenders have identified employment as a key factor in post- release success (Burke, 1997). According to Graffam, Shinkfield, Lavelle, and McPherson (2004), Employment provides more than the income necessary to support adequate material conditions. It also provides structure and routine, while filling time. It provides opportunities to expand one’s social network to include other productive members of society. In addition to all this, employment can contribute to enhanced self-esteem and other psychological health. It has been suggested however, that the gains of employment with respect to reducing re-offending may be linked to the quality of the job, rather than merely being employed (Uggen, 1999). It has been acknowledged that aftercare and post-release services can achieve multiple ends: reduced reoffending, improved integration with mainstream society (through supply of labour) and, ultimately, enhanced community safety (Travis & Petersilia, 2001). The crime prevention goal of aftercare programs is measured in terms of offender recidivism. To reduce recidivism, re-entry programs are introduced to assist the re-integration of ex-offenders. Re integration is the coming back of the prisoner into the community to continue normal life (including gainful employment) after incarceration. Social reintegration, an intervention which aims at integrating the client into the society through education, is always advocated. Alessandro (2009), identified the successful reintegration of ex-convicts back into the society to include: training in Prisons, job Placement (after release), innovative Programmes (such as After-care programmes), restoring economic supports and rebuilding family networks. Each of these provisions increases the chance that ex-offenders have a chance to make a new life after incarceration. Traditionally, one could identify three main types of offender reintegration programmes, namely, institution-based programmes, surveillance-based transition programmes, and assistance based transition programmes. Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 187 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011. Pp. 185-198 Institutional programmes are designed to prepare offenders to re-enter society. This include education, mental health care, substance abuse treatment, job training, counseling, and mentoring. These programmes are more effective when they are centred on a full diagnostic and assessment of offenders (Hirschi, 2002). Some of these programmes are offered prior to the release by community-based agencies which are equipped to provide after- care and follow-up with the offenders following their release from confinement. As these programmes are voluntary, a large number of offenders do not participate and are subsequently released into the community without any pre-release preparation. Surveillance-based programmes are centered on supervision of offenders in the community following release from confinement. According to Maruna and LeBel (2002), there are four models of parole supervision: risk-based, needs-based, middle-ground and strengths-based. Risk-based strategies operate on the premise that offenders are dangerous and need to be controlled and closely monitored. Needs-based supervision strategies focus on offenders’ criminogenic needs, which mean parole supervisors help offenders get appropriate treatment in programmes such as cognitive skills training and addictions counselling (Maruna & LeBel, 2002). The ‘middle-ground’ position is a combination of the two models. The amalgamation is supposed to appease supporters of both models. The final (and least-researched) supervision strategy is the ‘strengths-based’ model which views offenders as “assets to be managed rather than merely liabilities to be supervised” (Maruna & LeBel, 2002). This approach is based on the assumption that prisoners are stigmatized, and that it is this stigma, rather than any inherent dangerousness, that makes them more likely to commit further crime. Assistance based transition programmes are designed to offer support and assistance to categories of prisoners after incarceration. It includes the following: Assistance for Mentally ill Offenders (Hartwell & Orr, 1999), employment / job market reentry assistance, lodging and financial assistance, family support, substance abuse interventions and programmes for sexual offenders (all these are called after-care services). In Nigeria, after-care service of the Nigerian Prisons Service had the cardinal objectives to successfully integrate the inmates back to the society (especially getting them employed). According to Olojede (2009), the Nigerian prisons Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 188 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Effectiveness of After-care-services in the Reintegration and Supply of Labour ... Service has since 2003 renewed its efforts at providing After Care Services for discharged inmates. Ukueku, (2008), stated that the programme of after- care services involve provision of tools to discharging inmates who are proficient in various fields of occupation and other vocational skills. This, it is believed would enable them to be meaningfully engaged after discharge. Five locations were chosen bases on geopolitical spread. They are Benin- city (South-South), Ibadan (South-West), Nassarawa (North-Central), Abia (South-East), and Lagos. It should be noted that, apart from the efforts to include both ex-convicts and awaiting trial persons who had stayed for quite a lengthy period, the programme is not the same as the traditionally known “half way homes”. While the concept of After Care is a post - release programme which seeks to reintegrate discharged inmates successfully into the society, “half way homes programme” is a pre-release programme designed to facilitate prisoner's re-entry to society. In deed persons in half way homes may be sent back to prison if found to be of bad behaviour. Efforts of After-Care Centers was aimed at filling the gap in penal philosophy, reduce recidivism, and provide a safer society. The schemes introduced include: skill acquisition scheme (tailoring, barbing/hairdressing, information technology, literacy/numeracy acquisition, vulcanizing, agriculture ); small scale ventures scheme ( toilet roll making, soap making, shoe making) so as to assist in the rehabilitation and reintegration of ex- convicts into the society, thereby guaranteeing labour supply into the economy. Table 1 shows the number of inmates that benefitted from after-care service programme of the Nigeria Prison Service in Oyo and Lagos states between 2005 and 2010. Offenders released from correctional institutions are confronted by a range of social, economic and personal challenges that tend to become obstacles to a crime-free lifestyle. Some of these challenges are as a result of the offenders’ past experiences and others are more directly associated with the consequences of incarceration and the difficulty of transiting back into the community (Borzycki, 2005). Most of the ex-prisoners had lost touch with friends, relations and their mode of livelihood(employment) as a result of the time spent in prison. This situation forces them back to bad gangs who are ever ready to accept them thus increasing recidivist tendencies in our society. Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 189 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011. Pp. 185-198 According to Borzycki, (2005); Borzycki and Makkai (2007), the period of incarceration may itself have had several “collateral effects” upon many offenders: they may have lost their livelihood, their personal belongings, their ability to maintain housing for themselves and their family; they may have lost important personal relationships and incarceration may have damaged their social networks; they may have experienced mental health difficulties or acquired self-defeating habits and attitudes. Homelessness, in particular, may place youth at risk of offending (Arnull, Eagle, Gammampila, Patel and Sadler, 2007). Lack of place to accommodate ex-offenders, both for living and practising what they have learnt while in prison custody, as a result of lost of relationship and stigmatisation problem from the public, contributed to the concentration of ex-prisoners in the most problematic parts of the community where there are high rates of crime and disorder and an absence of support services. There is a paucity of reliable information on ex-prisoners’ experiences in securing accommodation in the community or/and on the relationship between housing and recidivism (Baldry, McDonnel, Maplestone, and Peeters, 2002). Theses among other problems, forces ex-offenders back into their criminal group where they are welcomed back and as a result, reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration become difficult for ex-offenders. It is along this background that the present study aims at investigating the effectiveness of After-Care service in the rehabilitation and supply of labour into the economy by ex-offenders in Oyo and Lagos state commands of the Nigerian prison service. Three hypotheses were raised and tested for the study. Research hypotheses i. There is no significant effect of community supervision programme of after-care on reintegration and supply of labour by ex-offenders in Oyo and Lagos state command of the Nigerian prison service. ii. There is no significant effect of space acquiring programme of after- care on reintegration and supply of labour by ex-offenders in Oyo and Lagos state command of the Nigerian prison service. iii. There is no significant effect of tools purchase programme of after- care on reintegration and the supply of labour by ex-offenders in Oyo and Lagos state command of the Nigerian prison service. Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 190 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Effectiveness of After-care-services in the Reintegration and Supply of Labour ... Methodology The research design adopted for the study is descriptive survey research design of the expost facto type. The population for the study consists of all ex-prisoners who have at one time or the other been incarcerated in Prison in Oyo and Lagos state commands of the Nigerian prisons service and have during this period, undergone one training or the other for the purpose of skill acquisition towards eventual rehabilitation and supply of labour into the economy. A purposive random sampling method was used to select a total of 450 respondents who had benefited from the aftercare programme of the Nigerian prison service in both Oyo and Lagos state. The main instrument used for the study is a single questionnaire titled; “Supervision, Space Acquiring, Tools Purchase, Rehabilitation and Labour Supply Questionnaire-SSTRLQ” with five sub- sections. Section A measures the demographic data, section B is the measurement of Supervision Scale, Section C measures Space Acquiring programme, section D is the measurement of Tool Provision Scale, Section E measures Rehabilitation/Labour Supply. a) Supervision Scale (SS): This is made up of six items measuring Supervision. The items were adapted from “Supervision Questionnaire-Child (Grade7, Year 8 Update)” developed by Doyle & McCarty, (2001). The respondents were asked to respond to a 4 – point rating scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). b) Space Acquiring Scale (SAS): The instrument contained six questions measuring the participants’ Space Acquisition. The questions was adapted from “Merger or Acquisition Questionnaire” developed by Jorgensen, (2004). The participants were asked to respond to a 4 – point rating scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). c) Tools Acquiring Scale (TAS): The instrument consists of six items measuring Tools Acquisition. The items were adapted from “Merger or Acquisition Questionnaire” developed by Jorgensen, (2004). Participants were asked to respond to a 4 – point rating scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 191 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011. Pp. 185-198 d) Rehabilitation and Labour Supply Scale (RLSS): The instrument consists of 10 items measuring rehabilitation/labour supply. The items were adapted from the Rehabilitation Scale developed by Hendrik (2007), titled “The impact of prison reformation on the Inmates Population in Swaziland”, Malot and Fromader (2010), titled, “Male Inmates Perspective in Reducing Recidivism Rates Through Post-Incarceration Resources”. Participants were asked to respond to a 4 – point rating scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4); with high scores indicating a positive or favourable overall rehabilitation. The reliability of the instruments were done through test retest, of two weeks interval, on 30 prisoners in the Nigerian Prison Service, Ilesa, Osun State. Reliability co-efficient for each instrument were: Supervision Scale(r =0.85), Space Acquiring Scale (r =0.79), Tools Acquiring Scale (r =0.81) and Rehabilitation/ Labour Supply Scale (r =0.92). The instruments were administered by the researchers with the assistance of the Controller of the prisons involved and prison officers in charge of Social Welfare Unit. The questionnaires were left with the respondents for two weeks for proper completion. Out of the 450 questionnaires distributed, only 400 were returned and found usable for data analysis. The statistical methods employed for analyzing the data are frequency counts, simple percentage for demographic data and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at α =0.05 level of significance for the hypotheses. Results Analysis of demographic variables The respondents were made-up of 380 males and 20 females with ages between 15years and 41years and a mean age of 30.91years. Only 22.8%(91), had no formal education before incarceration. However, all respondents had training while in prison and are currently under the after-care scheme. Analysis of research hypotheses: From table 2, space acquisition programme of after-care significantly have effect on reintegration and supply of labour into the workplace (F= 76.565; p< 0.05), also, supervision programme of after-care significantly affect the reintegration and supply of labour by ex-offenders (F=29.630; p< 0.05). However, provision of tools programme does not significantly affect reintegration and supply of labour by ex-offender (F= 1.135; p>0.05). Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 192 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Effectiveness of After-care-services in the Reintegration and Supply of Labour ... Looking at the result of the 2-way interaction of the variables, space acquisition and supervision programmes significantly affect reintegration and supply of labour by ex-offender that passed through the after-care service(F=12.310; p<0.05). space acquisition and tools provision programmes; supervision and tools provision programmes of after-care service do not significantly affect the reintegration and supply of labour into the economy(F=0.208; p>0.05; f=3.700; p>0.05 respectively). Discussion From the findings, the result of the first hypothesis showed that supervision programme helped ex-offender to remain at work and get employed by their jobs. This result support the finding of Paparozzi and Gendreau (2005); Serin, Voung, and Briggs (2003) that the application of Intensive Supervision Practices (ISP) to high-risk offenders lowers rates of readmission to incarceration hence the continuous employment and supply of labour into the economy. Employment provides more than the income necessary to support adequate material conditions. It also provides structure and routine, while filling time(Graffam, Shinkfield, Lavelle & McPherson, 2004). The employment of ex-offenders provide opportunities to expand their social network and enhance self-esteem and other psychological health, thereby dissuading them from crime and become more positively productive. The finding that space provision for the practice of learned job had effect on the supply of labour is as a result that both the job and the ex-offender were provided with accommodation. From experience offenders who are reconvicted often point to lack of suitable housing as a key factor in their unsuccessful transition to life in the community (Lewis, Sam, Julie, Mike, Peter, Maurice, Steve & Andrew, 2003). So, the absence of suitable accommodation for released offenders and the new trade in the community result in ex-prisoners becoming problematic to the community. Therefore, provision of space keeps them busy and productive within the economy. The non significance of tools provision program to the provision of labour into the economy by ex-offenders is in line with the finding of Webster, Hedderman, Turnbull, and May, (2001) that numerous financial difficulties and inability to purchase working tools/equipments are among several conditions that restrict employment and rehabilitation outcomes for prisoners/ex-prisoners. The true situation is that most ex-offenders want quick money to settle down fast into the society because they are not accepted nor given social support by both the family and the community, Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 193 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011. Pp. 185-198 hence, all tools supplied are sold to keep ‘mind and soul’ together. The resultant effect is non-practice of learnt trade, reduction in labour supply into the workforce and recidivism. Implications for industrial social workers and recommendations Findings from the study have useful implications. For instance, the Industrial Social Workers and Social welfare officers attached to prisons are to carry out survey of training needs of inmates so as to give adequate advice regarding the trade to be learnt while in prison so that they will be appropriately accommodated when they are out of prison. Furthermore, industrial social workers should advocate on behalf of released prisoners to get necessary support from the family in particular and the society in general so as to have conducive environment to practice their trade. Prison authorities and social workers should endeavour to collect all relevant information about prisoners before their exit from the prison. This will enhance proper monitoring and supervision, in all ramifications, of ex- offenders. Supervisors should also involve parents, spouse or friends of the ex-offenders so as to have adequate information about the ex-offenders for adequate reintegration and continuous employment. Efforts of the Nigerian prison service in making sure that ex offenders secure accommodation so as to be able to practice what they have been trained for during incarceration should be improved. Proper supervision should be carried out on ex- offenders so as to reduce the temptation of selling the tools/equipments provided for them after release. In conclusion the prison authorities, policy-makers, and practitioners(social workers) should identify programmes and strategies that will help prisoners to be successfully reintegrated back into their communities without re- offending. Some of the programmes suggested are the after-care (employment training, counselling, supervision, accommodation and tools provision). These treatments will solve the problem of recidivism when applied individually and will be more effective when jointly used on individual ex-offenders. Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 194 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Effectiveness of After-care-services in the Reintegration and Supply of Labour ... References Alessandro, Pirona. (2009). Social reintegration. Retrieved from: www.wikipedia.com. 10/04/2010. Arnull, E., Eagle, S. Gammampila, A. Patel, S.L. Sadler, J. (2007). Housing Needs and Experiences. London, UK: Youth Justice Board for England and Wales. Baldry, E. McDonnel, D. Maplestone, P. and Peeters, M. (2002). Ex-prisoners and Accommodation: What Bearing do Different Forms of Housing Have on Social Reintegration of Ex-Prisoners? 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"Aftercare for Drug-Using Prisoners: Lessons from an International Study". The Probation Journal, 49, 120-129. Graffam, J., Shinkfield, A., Lavelle, B. and McPherson, B. W. (2004). "Variables Affecting Successful Reintegration as Perceived by Offenders and Professionals." Journal of Offender Rehabilitation.40 (1/2), 147-171. Harper, G. and Chitty, C. 2004. The Impact of Corrections on Re-offending: A Review of 'What Works'. (Third edition). London, UK: Research, Development, and Statistics Directorate, Home Office. Hartwell, S. W. and Orr, K. (1999). "The Massachusetts Forensic Transition Program for Mentally Ill Offenders Re-Entering the Community." Psychiatric Services, 50(9), 1220-1222. Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 195 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011. Pp. 185-198 Hendrik, J. B. (2007). The Impact of Prison reform on the Inmate Population of Swaziland. Journal of Criminology. 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Intensive Supervision Practices: A Preliminary Examination. Ottawa: Correctional Service of Canada. Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 196 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Effectiveness of After-care-services in the Reintegration and Supply of Labour ... Retrieved from http://www.crime-prevention- intl.org/publications/pub_174_1.pdf Travis, J. and Petersilia, J. (2001). “Re-entry reconsidered: A new look at an old question”. Crime and Delinquency, vol. 47, pp. 291-313. Uggen, C. (1999). “Ex-offenders and the Conformist Alternative: A Job Quality Model of Work and Crime.” Social Problems, 46(1), 127-151. Ukueku, B.O. (2009). Paper presented at the training workshop for aftercare and welfare officers, held at prisons staff college, Kaduna on 15th of may, 2009. Visher, C. A., Winterfield, L. and Coggeshall, M. B. (2005). "Ex-offender Employment Programs and Recidivism: A Meta-analysis." Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1(3), 295-315. Webster, R., Hedderman, C., Turnbull, P. J., & May, T. (2001). Building bridges to employment for prisoners (Home Office Research Study 226): The Communication and Development Unit, Home Office, London. Table 1: Showing the number of inmates that benefitted from after-care service programme of the Nigeria Prison Service in Oyo and Lagos states between 2005 and 2010. Lagos Oyo Total 2005-2010 2005-2010 Numbers of Inmates Trained 2,000 1,500 3,500 Inmates that benefitted from Supervision Programme 500 450 950 Inmates that benefitted from Tools Acquisition Programme 300 280 580 Inmates that benefitted from Space Acquisition Programme 131 87 218 Source: After care service unit, Nigeria Prisons Service, Oyo and Lagos state (2010). Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 197 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Vol. 5 (5), Serial No. 22, October, 2011. Pp. 185-198 Table 2: Analysis of Variance showing the effect of after-care programmes on reintegration and supply of Labour into the economy by ex-offenders Sources of Variation Sum of df Mean Square F Sig Squares Main Effects 1911.992 3 637.331 36.443 .000 Space 1373.968 1 1373.968 78.565 .000 Acquisition(SPA) 518.179 1 518.179 29.630 .000 Supervision(SUP) 19.844 1 19.844 1.135 .287 Tools Acquisition(TA) 2-Way Interactions 295.293 3 98.431 5.628 .001 SPA and SUP 215.288 1 215.288 12.310 .001 SPA and TA 3.639 1 3.639 0.208 .649 SUP and TA 64.712 1 64.712 7.700 .055 3- Way Interactions 0.459 1 0.459 0.026 .871 SPA, SUP and TA 0.459 1 0.459 0.026 .871 Explained 2207.744 7 315.392 18.034 .000 Residual 6855.434 392 17.488 Total 9063.178 399 22.715 Copyright © IAARR 2011: www.afrrevjo.com 198 Indexed African Journals Online: www.ajol.info UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY