THE 1999 CONSTITUTION AND THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIGENE-SETTLER CRISIS IN JOS, PLATEAU STATE, NIGERIA BABATUNDE, Ekundayo Oluwaremilekun B.A. Hons. and M.A., Literature in English (Ife), LL.B (Ife), M.A. Peace and Conflict Studies, (Ibadan) MATRIC NO: 131280 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE OF AFRICAN STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES) OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN JULY, 2014 CERTIFICATION We certify that this research work was carried out by Ekundayo Oluwaremilekun BABATUNDE under our supervisions in the Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Supervisor Prof. Isaac Olawale Albert Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Date Co-supervisor Prof. I. A. Olatubosun Faculty of Law, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Date ii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to: The Almighty God from whom all blessings flow, the ever present help in times of need. All thanks to the Lord, for He is Good and His mercies endures forever. He who remembers me in my lowly estate and effect the lyrics of this hymn in my life: 1. Sweet is the promise “I will not forget thee,” Nothing can molest or turn my soul away; E‟en though the night be dark within the valley, Just beyond is shining an eternal day. o Refrain: I will not forget thee or leave thee; In My hands I‟ll hold thee, in My arms I‟ll fold thee; I will not forget thee or leave thee; I am thy Redeemer, I will care for thee. 2. Trusting the promise “I will not forget thee,” Onward I will go with songs of joy and love, Though earth despise me, though my friends forsake me, I shall be remembered in my home above. 3. When at the golden portals I am standing, All my tribulations, all my sorrows past; How sweet to hear the blessed proclamation, “Enter, faithful servant, welcome home at last.” iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Great is Thy faithfulness, O God my Father; There is no shadow of turning with Thee, Thou changest not, Thy compassions they fail not, As Thou hast been, Thou forever wilt be. Refrain: Great is Thy faithfulness! Great is Thy faithfulness! Morning by morning new mercies I see All I have needed Thy hand hath provided Great is Thy faithfulness, Lord unto me! Summer and winter and springtime and harvest, Sun, moon, and stars in their courses above; Join with all nature in manifold witness, To Thy great faithfulness, mercy, and love. Pardon for sin and a peace that endureth, Thine own great presence to cheer and to guide; Strength for today, and bright hope for tomorrow Blessings all mine, with ten thousand beside. -Thomas O. Chisholm It is of the Lord's mercies that we are not consumed, because His compassions fail not. They are new every morning: great is Thy faithfulness. - Lamentations 3:22-23 In accordance with the above quoted timeless hymns and scriptural passage, I can state without any equivocation that this is my testimony; that the never failing and ever faithful arms of God carried me through this academic voyage. He remains faithful, even when I am unfaithful and he keeps His promises to me, even when I overtly break mines to Him. This is all to your Glory Lord. I have neither part nor portion in the realization and fulfillment of this project. He is the essence and substance of my being who generously iv showered me with requisite intellectual prowess to navigate through this learning curve. I give Him, the owner of life and the source of knowledge, and the fountain of wisdom, all adoration, praise, majesty and dominion till the ends of the earth for the successful completion of this study. A trail blazer and rarity of his time and generation, who remain unassuming and always ensuring he remains unsung; preferring that happens through the life and effect to which many like me put his investment into us to use in our world is my supervisor – Prof. Isaac Olawale Albert (Prof. Mi). Prof Mi did not only provide matchless scholarship prowess, wide intellectual spectrum and impeccable academic character to midwife the delivery of the ideas that gave birth to this „bouncing baby‟ of a research work, but also supported financially and morally, especially when the chips were down for me and its appears my ship was lost on the high sea. Thanks to god for your life Prof for being such a yielding instrument in the hands of the almighty God for me in providing a lauded intellectual guidance that has made the study of immense value. I believe it is not a coincidence that the work you inspired I researched years back is being concluded at about the time you are appointed a delegate to NATIONAL CONFERENCE in Abuja to discuss this subject and other sundry ones in our political pact and grundnum- The 1999 Constitution. Your sacrifices and that of other dedicated Nigeria towards repositioning Nigeria for realization of its full potential will not go down the drain. To my co-supervisor, Prof. Adeniyi Olatubosun, a very big thank you sir. He patiently provided the vision, encouragement and advise necessary for me to proceed through the thesis writing, encouraging and ensuring the work straddled perfectly well within the disciplines the study covered. I want to thank Prof. for his unflagging encouragement and serving as a role model in legal studies, practice and academic build up. He has been a strong and supportive adviser to me throughout my graduate school career having supervised my Master‟s thesis years back in this programme, and ensured also the completion of my law programmes. He has always given me great freedom to pursue independent research work by opening up new frontiers of academic engagement. Thanks Prof. I thank my Dad – Mr. Babatunde Basorun , a mentor, a teacher, a friend and an accomplished radio and television technician of his time. He must be given his regard of my expression of gratitude. My Dad‟s astuteness in business, conscientiousness and v unalloyed dedication to any cause of greatness inspired me a lot in my academic pursuit. I also thank my mum – Eunice Folasade Babatunde for resolutely complimenting my dad on me and my siblings. She stood like the rock of Gibraltar all through my academic pursuit, even when she should have been earning returns for her labour on me, she remain supportive and pray for this to come to pass. Her prayers and supplications have been ceaseless for me with respect to my career and successful completion of this study. The support, warmth and love provided by my siblings – Mrs. Lara Odetunde and family, Mr Ayodele Babatunde and family, Mr. Kayode Bababtunde, Biodun Babatunde and Ronke Babatunde are worthy of acknowledgement. They demonstrated continually a lot of confidence in me and in my intellectual ability, even In the face of several uncertainties that greeted this pursuit. Such conviction has been a source of inspiration. I thank them for the strong belief they have in me and particularly for their expectation that, this study, upon its completion, will accord me a status that will be a positive point of reference to the family. I register my gratitude here to my highly cherished brother and friend, Taiwo A. Ogunleye – PhD and wife Adenike Ogunleye (sister) for their spirited concern, sincere wishes and pragmatic steps of solidarity and intervention. In spite of the murky waters of life through which we have been navigating, I will ever appreciate them and laud their personalities. They are custodian and giver of magnanimity, from whose well of pleasantness and benefaction flows. I have drawn suiting waters of resilience and chivalry from giving themselves to God in this regard. I must gratefully thank Prof. and Prof. Mrs Kolawole for providing me with supports and sustenance at very crucial and critical moments. They literarily placed me on a scholarsip from their meager resources to see me through my graduate programmes. Dad and Mummy have opted to make relentlessly and tirelessly make life goes round for Sister Folake and Temi their biological children, and me their academic and spiritual son. They call me Pastor while they actually pastor me. I thank you daddy and Mummy. My thanks also go to Mrs. Marie Fatayi-Williams and family for their support. I appreciate your commiittment to seeing that the Anthony Fatayi-williams foundation for Peace and Conflict Resolution; an NGO set up in memory of their one and only beloved son, Anthony Issa Omorege Fatayi-williams who passed into glory during the July 7, 2005 vi terrorist attack in the UK . I pray this foundation touch the lives of young men and turn them away from violence, especially the rising terrorist attacks in the north east Nigeria. I also specially thank Dn and Dns Sola and Biola Asa together with their sons, Bukunmi and Pelumi, who they deprived several times to give me space and support to keep me going during my graduate studies.. Well done boys. They released all they have to me, from home to office, to automobiles and others‟ belongings in their custody. They also provided me with opportunities to leverage on. You will fulfill purpose By His Grace. Thanks also for doing your best to hold my feeble hands during the turbulent and trial times when the enemy came like a flood, wanting to sweep me away. Thank you. Thanks to Prof. Mathews Ojo, the vice chancellor of Bowen University Iwo who has steadfastly and conscientiously supported my aspirations and also providing with opportunities to leverage on for future growth and development. I am thankful Dad. I have to wholeheartedly express my gross gratitude to these fathers; they are invaluable mentors and Spiritual leaders – Rev. Dr. Olumide Kehinde and Rev. Dr. Israel Adelani Akanji, the senior pastors of Union Baptist Church, Odi-olowo, Osogbo and First Baptist Church, Garki, Abuja and Rev Prof. O.O Oladele of United English Baptist Church, Ile- Ife. Same goes for Rev Areo of Gateway BC, Ile-ife. They took me as a son and have taken keen interest in the totality of my well-being. Their prayers, encouragement and ecclesiastical guidance have been a pedestal upon which I have been strengthened, even when I was down and out. Thank you. I also have to specially thank my friend and „twin brother‟ in Christ, Rev. Mike O. Abioye and his family for always been there. I must specially thank Ibukun and Sola Akinrinola for not just being friends and looking after me in Ibadan since the programme started, but for also deploying all available resources at their disposal to ensure my comfort and tranquility in Ibadan. I know this is a big sacrifice and it is not lost on me. The faithful Lord will honour this labour of love. At this point, I have to mention the unquantifiable assistance, support and encouragement given to me at various times while carrying out this study by the following distinguished scholars, administrators and academics: Professor Dele Layiwola, Director, Insitute of African Studies, (IAS), University of Ibadan, (UI), Nigeria; Dr. N. Danjibo, IAS, UI; Dr. I. Jimoh, Sub Dean, (Postgraduate) IAS, UI; Dr. Kayode Samuel, a former Sub Dean (Postgraduate), IAS, UI; Dr. Aluko IAS, UI; Dr. S.A. Odebunmi, Sub Dean, (Postgraduate), Faculty of Arts, UI. Special thanks goes to my external examiner, Prof. vii A.A. Agagu and the internal-external examiner, Dr. Remi E. Aiyede for their invaluable contributions towards enriching the work and their support for my academic development. It is also grossly expedient of me to acknowledge the encouragement and goodwill I received on this programme from a sister and friend, Hope; a staff at the Post Graduate School, University of Ibadan. She, at different times mobilized her colleagues and friends to help out in the administrative regularisations of my programme, year in- year out. You are God-sent source of help and support. Also in this regard, I recognize with delight and spirited mindset, the positive aura and pleasing character of Doyin, whom I met at the very concluding stage of the study, and with whom I weathered the storm of abstract approval by the executive committee of the Postgraduate School, University of Ibadan. Although, my study and hers‟ hinged on similar subject matter, study area and population have been completed, a good seed of friendship that will germinate to a very fruitful partnership in the future has been sown. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank Olabisi Olubukola. For want of better words other than thank, I will make do with it and say thank you again. In the Yoruba language, I will say Ese gidi gan ni (thanks immensely). Her support, encouragement, quiet patience and unwavering love were undeniably the bedrock upon which the past five years of my life have been built. Her tolerance of my occasional outburst and unstable moods is a testament in itself of her unyielding devotion and love, even, when then; there was no love affair and marriage relationship between us. I thank her for having so much faith in me and helping me to be as ambitious as I wanted. It was under her encouraging and unassuming eye that I gained so much drive and an ability to tackle challenges head on, when I was down and out four years ago. She chose to endure and survive the experience with me with no strings attached and provided me with unending encouragement and support. Since considering marriage possibilities between us two months ago, I am beginning to think that the best thing about life would be knowing that no matter how hard it get, how scary it becomes, or how poor we may be, all I had to do will be to go home, close the door behind me, and see her and the sun would shine and nothing else would seem that important any longer. She has demonstrated this and much more for over five years, even when no marriage possibility existed between us. viii I guess what they say about your home being your castle is really true because whenever I have to think of a home with her, everything outside the door seems no longer of any concern. Truly, one‟s castle is only one home if one has his best friend waiting for him and she becomes one‟s wife. This is no vain or empty euphemism, she is a complete human being under God and as she always says, „I am work in progress under God watchful care.‟ She is truly. I have been with female gender as daughters, friends, colleagues, admirers and even lately lover, but I sure know better now that she stands out. For a decade and half that I have known her, she has remain consistent in her ways and her love, passion and faith in the things she believed had never dwindled till now. I have asked her if she can cope with my eccentric behavior of always being out there making life go round for others to my own detriment and now, to hers‟ and may be the kids God will give us.. Her response shocked me, when she said; this has been you for about fifteen years I have known you. I am not hoping that marriage to you will change that. If it does, I may no longer find you interesting. This is you that I love and your world that I want. I hope one day, you will yield to God‟s call and show this unhindered and unrestrained, no – strings attached passion and love for others. I know God will keep you. Let me just reluctantly use the word again by saying a big THANK YOU to my; Golden goddess from above Moonbeam skin Piscean love Sapphire eyes Lips of fire Soothing coo of the dove My feline femme Passion raging like the sea Holy heart Mystic mind Allure from which I cannot flee Thank you Mademoiselle O.O. I can only wait in hope that this blossoms. Finally, I am grossly indebted to all sources of scholarly works cited in this study. I sincerely regret and tender apology in respect of any omission. Once again, I thank you all. ix My story is best concluded thus: „ I will sing of the mercies of the Lord for ever: with my mouth will I make known Thy faithfulness to all generations. (Psalm 89:1) x ABSTRACT In Nigeria, relevant sections of the 1999 Constitution prescribe ways to manage inter- group relationships and contentious issues among constituent parts within the realm. However, the constitution is not definitive in specifying statuses of indigenes and/or settlers, thereby opening those sections on „indigeneity‟ to misrepresentation and abuse, occasioning communal crisis in Jos since 2001. Drawing heavily on sociological and political perspectives, extant literature on indigene-settler has focused on the causes and management of the Jos crisis neglecting the dysfunctional structural template embedded in the Constitution. This study, therefore, assessed the contradictory nature of the provisions of the 1999 Constitution regarding indigene-settler relationship, how it has exacerbated the crisis in Jos and the effectiveness of constitutional provisions in quelling the crisis. The study adopted Strauss and Corbin‟s grounded approach and the qualitative research design. Data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Key informants interviews were conducted with seven members of the Constitution Review Committee drawn from the National Assembly, five members representing Plateau State at the National Assembly, four constitutional lawyers and12 leaders from the major ethnic group associations resident in Jos. Furthermore, two respondents drawn from Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) and two naturalised citizens resident in the city were also interviewed. Other primary sources include the 1999 Constitution and key judicial decisions. Secondary sources were newspapers and newsmagazines. Data obtained were content analysed. The gaps in, and contradictory nature of sections 14 (3), 25 (1), 45-46 and 147 (3) on the status of indigene-settler in the 1999 Constitution is the base of the myriads of crises plaguing Jos since 2001. Specifically, the provisions of sections 14 (3) and 147 (3) neither envisaged the gravity and complexity of the crisis elicited by a convoluted indigene- settler relationship in Jos nor the far-reaching implications for safeguarding citizenship and fundamental human rights in Nigeria. The cases of Festus Okoye & ors v. FGN & ors, (2004) and Anizaku & ors v. Nasarawa State Governor & ors (2010) failed to get judicial definition for indigeneship and deterred governments from using the indigene- settler dichotomy as basis for assessing socio-economic and political opportunities like xi education and employment. These stoked renewed crises in Jos in 2004 and 2010 respectively. Contradictory administrative, political and military responses further exacerbated the crisis. The inability of successive governments to implement the recommendations of the various judicial commissions of inquiry continues to fan discord between and amongst groups in the city. Interviews revealed that the deployment of these constitutional provisions such as the issuance of letter of indigeneship to certain categories of Jos residents aggravated the crisis. Interviewees also clamoured for amendment to Chapters 2, 3 and 4 of the 1999 Constitution in order to eradicate ambiguities, make relevant provisions justiciable, and enhance the overall quality of citizenship. The 1999 Constitution is inadequate for the effective management of indigene-settler crisis in Jos.It should, therefore,be amended to remedy the legal and constitutional limitations militating the search for a lasting solution to the vexed indigene-settler issue in Nigeria. Key words: 1999 Constitution, Conflict management, Indigene-settler crisis in Jos Word count: 492 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Title Page i Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv Abstract xi Table of Contents xiii Abbreviation xix List of Cases xxi List of Statutes xxii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.0 Introduction and Background to the Study 1 1.1 Statement of Research Problem 6 1.2 Research Questions 8 1.3 Objectives of the Study 8 1.4 Justification of the Study 9 1.5 Research Propositions 10 1.6 Limitation of the Study 10 1.10 Conceptual Definition of Terms 11 1.10.1 The 1999 Constitution 11 1.10.2 Indigene 12 1.10.3 Settler 12 xiii CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 13 2.0 Introduction 13 2.1 Pluralism, Ethnicity and Citizenship 13 2.1.1 The State and Citizenship 31 2.2 Overview of Conflicts arising from Ethnicity and Claims to Indigeneship in Nigeria and some Legal Review 48 2.2.1 Aguleri-Umuleri Crisis 53 2.2.2 Ife - Modakeke Indigene-Settler Crisis 54 2.2.3 Warri Crisis: Historical Foundations of the Warri Crisis 56 2.2.4 Urhobo Versus Itsekiri Feud 57 2.2.5 Itsekiri Verses Ijaw Feud 58 2.2.6 Ijaw Versus Urhobo Feud 59 2.2.7 Tiv-Jukun Crises: Historical Foundation of Tiv-Jukun Crisis 59 2.2.8 2001-2003 Tiv-Jukun Crisis 63 2.2.9 Jos Crisis: Historical Foundations 66 2.2.10 The 1994 Jos Crisis 68 2.2.11 2001 Jos Sectarian Disturbances 70 2.2.12 2004 Yelwa-Shendam Sectarian Disturbances 70 2.2.13 2008 Jos Sectarian Disturbances 73 2.3 Theoretical Framework 74 2.3.1 Grounded Theory: An Exploration of Process and Procedure 74 2.3.2 Pertinent Background Information 75 2.3.3 Data Analysis in Grounded Theory 77 2.3.4 Glaser Versus Strauss: a Discussion of Choices 78 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 80 3.0 Methods and Scope of the Research 80 3.1 Population of the Study 82 3.2 Research Design 83 3.3 Sample and Sampling Procedure 84 3.4 Data Collection 85 3.4.1 Difficulties and Discrepancies 87 xiv 3.4.2 Assessment 88 3.5 Organising and Analysing Data 89 3.6 GTM as an Approach for Data Analysis 91 3.7 Grounded Theory Methodology 92 3.7.1 Data Collection and Analysis in Grounded Theory 93 3.7.2 Coding Interviews as Part of the Analytic Process 94 3.7.3 Use of Grounded Theory Methodology for this Study 95 3.7.4 Limitations of the Grounded Theory Methodology 96 3.8 Data Collection Procedures 96 3.9 Interviews 96 3.9.1 Interview Preparation 97 3.10 Scope and Limitations of the Study 98 3.11 Chapter Summary and Conclusion 99 CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS AND REPORT OF FINDINGS 100 4.0 Introduction 100 4.1 Dissecting Legal-Constitutional, Historical and Cultural Foundations of Indigene-Ship in Nigeria 100 4.2 Nigeria Constitutional Developments, Contradictions, Gaps and Misrepresentation: Precursor of the Jos Crisis 109 4.3 Colonialism, Independence and Constitutional Development 110 4.4 Federalism, Citizenship and Ownership: Distilling Constitutional Pefagogy 113 4.5 Customary, Islamic and Statutory Law 122 4.6 Religion, Unity and Regional Integration in the 1999 Constitution 128 4.7 The Constitutional Premise for Federalism and National Unity in Nigeria 131 4.8 Issues in Constitutional Definitions of Citizen, Indigene and Settler 134 4.9 The Jurisprudence of Citizenship and Flexible Identity in Jos and other parts of the North Central Nigeria 139 xv CHAPTER FIVE: DISTILLING THE 1999 CONSTITUTION, RELATED LAWS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE CONTEXT THE JOS CRISIS 145 5.1 The Jos Indigene-Settler Crises: Existing Assumptions, Policy Issues and Constitutional Gaps 145 5.2 Re-Defining Rights and Entitlements in the 1999 Constitution 148 5.3 Opening Up New Frontiers of Opportunity for Managing Jos Crises? 152 5.4 Understanding Jos Deep Divides: What the 1999 Constitution Says 154 5.5 The Positions and Strategies of Key Actors in the Indigene-settler Contenstations in Jos 158 5.5.1 Ethnicity among the Hausa in Jos 159 5.5.2 Ethnic Association among the Yoruba in Jos 163 5.5.3 The position of the Hausa Community 167 5.5.4 Disquisitions of Hausa Submissions 177 5.5.5 The Claims of the “Indigenes” – Beroms, Afizere and Anaguta 178 5.5.6 Disquisitions on the Indigenes Positions 188 5.5.7 The Position of the Igbo and Yoruba 189 5.6 The Nature and Form of Constitutional Management of the Jos Crisis 191 5.7 “Indigenes”, Citizens and “Settlers”: Synopsis of the Views Expressed by various Conferences on Jos Crisis 193 5.6 Conclusion 203 CHAPTER SIX: ALTERNATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS FOR MITIGATING THE CRISIS: DEPLOYING FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES AND DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY AND FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 204 6.0 Introduction 204 6.1 Economic, Social, Environmental and Cultural Objectives 204 6.2 Enforcement of Fundamental Objectives in Foreign Jurisdictions 208 6.3 Fundamental Rights: Examination of some Rights 210 6.3.1 Right to Life 210 6.3.2 Loss of Life in Armed Conflict and Wars 214 xvi 6.3.3 Right to Dignity of the Human Person 216 6.3.4 Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion 217 6.3.5 Right to Peaceful Assembly and Association 219 6.3.6 Right to Freedom of Movement 219 6.3.7 Right to Freedom from Discrimination 221 6.3.8 Right to Acquire and Own Moveable Property 223 6.4 Impacts of Indigene-Settler Crisis on the Socio-Economic Development of Jos City and Nigeria 224 6.4.2 Education 224 6.4.3 Children 225 6.4.4 Women 225 6.4.5 Human Rights 226 6.4.6 Socio-Economic 226 6.4.7 Social Systems 226 6.4.8 Social-Psychological 227 CHAPTER SEVEN: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 228 7.1 Findings 228 7.1.1 Contradictions between Constitutional Provisions on Indigeneship” 228 7.1.2 Fettering of Powers of the IGP & COPs during Communal Conflicts 228 7.1.3 Treatment of Perpetrators of Crime during the Jos Indigene-Settler Crises 229 7.1.4 Non-Justiciability of the Fundamental Objectives & Directive Principles of State Policy 229 7.1.5 Non-Justiciability of Constitutional Provision on Discrimination with Regards to Discrimination by Private Individuals 230 7.1.6 Poor Implementation of Federal Character Principle 230 7.1.7 Apparent Disconnection between the Positions of “the Law” and “Moral Values of the People on the Issue of “Indigeneship” 230 7.1.8 „Judicial Commission of Inquiry‟: the most Prominent xvii “Legal Institution” Relied upon in Times of Indigene-Settler Crises in Jos 231 7.2 Recommendations 231 7.2.1 Policy Recommendations 232 7.2.2 Lifting of Requirement for Permission for the IGP & COP before taking Action in Times of Crises 235 7.2.3 Amendments on Constitutional Provisions Regarding Indigeneship” 235 7.2.4 Indigene-Settler Crises in Nigeria & the International Criminal Court (ICC) 236 7.2.5 Justiciability of Fundamental Objectives & Directive Principles of state Policy 236 7.2.6 Justiciability of Constitutional Provision on Freedom from Discrimination by Private Individuals 236 7.2.7 Amendments of the Constitution and the Federal Character Commission Act on the Federal Character Principle 236 7.2.8 Role for Traditional Rulers in the Constitution 237 7.2.9 Need fro Harmonization of “the Law” and “Moral Values” of the People on the Issue of “Indigeneship”, and Launching of “Citizenship Education” Campaign 237 7.2.10 Ad-hoc Judicial Commission of Inquiry should be Replaced by a Permanent Commission of Inquiry 237 7.3 Conclusion 238 BIBLIOGRAPHY 246 xviii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ALL N.L.R - All Nigerian Law Report C.F.R.N - Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria Ibid - Same Citation with the one fully cited above Infra - Discussed elsewhere after this L.F.R - Laws of the Federation of Nigeria N.L.R - Nigerian Law Report N.W.L.R - New Weekly Law Report N.M.L.R - New Monthly Law Report N.S.C.C - Nigerian Supreme Court Cases N.S.C.J - Nigeria Supreme Court Judgement Op. cit. - Opposite Cited S.C.N.J - Supreme Court of Nigeria Judgement Supra - Cited elsewhere before this WACA - West African Court of Appeal W.L.R - Weekly Law Report W.R.N.L.R - Western Region of Nigeria Law Report BAA - Berom/Anaguta/Afizere LGAs - Local Government Areas IDIs - In-Depth Interviews GTM - Grounded Theory Method GRA - Government Reserved Area IMF - International Monetary Form NPC - Northern People‟s Congress UMBC - United Middle Belt Congress PDP - People's Democratic Party ANPP - All Nigerian Peoples Party CSOs - Civil Society Organisations NBS - National Bureau of Statistics BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation CSO - Civil Society Organisation OHCHR - Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights JDA - JASSAWA Development Association xix BECO - Berom Educational and Cultural Organisation NPP - Nigerian Peoples Party NPN - National Party of Nigeria INEC - Independent National Electoral Commission NESCO - Nigeria Electricity Supply Company HYPADEC - Hydro-Power Development Commission Constitution Review Committee (CRC) Armed Forces Ruling Council‟s (AFRC) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) xx LIST OF CASES CASES Awolowo Vs Shagari (1980) 2 NMLR p. 28-29 Olowu vs. Olowu )(1967) 2 ALL NLR p. 23-59 Jimoh Bello vs. Ayotunde Raji, the National Electric Commission and others (1989) 2 NWLR (PT. 87) p. 118 Arch. Bishop Olubumi Okogie Vs. The Lagos State, (1981) 2 NCRL 33 at 350 Oshevire Vs. British Caledonian Airways (1987) 4 (PT 163) 507 Ibidapo Vs. Luthansa Airlines (1997) 4 NWLR (PT 498) 124 Ogugu Vs. The State (1996) 9 NWLR (PT 336) P. I. Nemi Vs. The State (1994) 1 SCNJ 106 Controller-General, Nigerian Prison Services Vs. Dr Femi Adekanye & Others (2002) 15 NWLR (PT 790) 362 State Security Service Vs. Olisa Agbokoba (1998) NWLR (PT 595) 425 Orok Anam Local Government Vs. Ikpa & Others, (2003) 12 NWLR (PT 835) 558 Chief Fawehinmi Vs. General Abacha (1996) 4 NWLR (PT 475) 710 Labiyi Vs. Anrethiola (1992) 8 NWLR (PT 258) 193 Equal Opportunity Commission and Anor Vs. Sec. for State for Emplo. (1994) 1 ALL ER 910 Government of the Republic of South Africa Vs. Grootboom (2001) 36 WRN 137 at 162-163 R Vs. Tonkin and Montgomery (1995) WACA 249 Fawehinmi Vs. Akilu (1987) 4 NWLR 797 Uzoukwu Vs. Ezeonu (1991) NWLR (2000) P. 715 Adamu Vs A. G. Borno State (1996) 8 NWLR (PT 465) P. 215 Festus Okoye & Ors Vs. FGN & ors, (2004) Anizaku & ors Vs. Nasarawa State Governor & ors 2010 Festus Okoye & ors v. FGN & ors (2004) Anizaku & ors v. Nasarawa State Governor & ors 2010 xxi LIST OF STATUTES Statutes Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 1978 Electoral Act Federal Character Commission (Established etc) Act Cap F7BLFN 2004 Interpretation Acts, Cap. 192 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 1990 African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (Ratification and Enforcement) Act (Cap. 10) police Act, Cap P19 LFN, Vol 13, 2004--- National Youth Service Corps Act, Cap N84 LFN, Vol. II, 2004 xxii