UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Volume Nine ISSN 1596-9231
Number Two CONTENTS December, 2011
N~ME OF AUTHORS TITLE OF ARTICLES
EDITORIAL
CONTENTS ii
ADEI3A YO O. 3854 Perceived HIV Stigmatization,
ADEJUMO HIV/AIDS Cognition and Personality
as Correlates of HIV Self-Disclosure
among People Living WithHIV in
Ibadan, Nigeria.
KARL PELTZER, EVELYN 3870 Hl V.Knowledge, Risk Perception and
F. VALLIERES, & CILY Risk Behaviour among Male Ex-
TABANE Offenders in Mpumalanga, South
Africa.
ADEREMII. ALARAPE 3886 Attitudes towards Rape among Nigerian
ABlODUN M. LAWAL Young Adults: The Role of Gender,
Parental Family Structure and
Religiosity.
TAM 130 LUCIAN K., J8lJ7 -lnt1ucnce of Type of School on Self-
MUNAKANDAFA WALTER, Perception of Mathematical Ability and
MATSWETU VIMBA) S. & Achievement among Girls in Secondary
MUNODAWAFA VIOLET School in Harare
SAKAM. JIMOl-), SAKA A. J':!16 Therapeutic Value of Adjustment
OLUWATOYIN, LATINWO Practices and Coping with Grand
W. OLAJIDE, & RAJII-l. 0 Children for Menopausal Women in
Nigeria.
IMRAN, MUSSAWAR S1-1A I-I, 3926 Women Trafficking in Peshawar,
AKHTAR ALl, ABASSULLAI-I Pakistan: Does Socio-Psychological
JAN, ASAOULLAH & SIDR.i\ Perception Matter.
IQ13AL
STELLA A. OLOWODUNOYE, 3941 Parenting Styles, Gender, Religiosity
& OYEBOADE A. TITUS and Examination Malpractices
11
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NAME OF AUTHORS TITLE OF ARTICLES
DANJUMA S. KEGUNDU, 3961 Skill Acquisition, Capacity Building
HUSSAINI U. MALAMT, and Women Economic Empowerment:
& NASIRU M. GATAWA A Case Study of Women Education
Center, Bimin Kebbi.
JOliN L. OYEFARA 3979 Determinants of Adolescence Fertility
in Contemporary Yoruba Society: A
Multivariate Analysis.
GAllRmL A. Af{INBODE, & 4005 Gender. Tenure and Organizational
UAMIKOLE O. Factors as Predictors of Job
FAGBOIIUNGBE Involvement among Nigerian Workers
ABIODUN M. GESINDE& 4039 Gender-Related Di fferences in
REMI AKUJOllI Attitudinal Disposition of University
Workers to Resolving Conflict through
Mediation
AJIBOYE O. EMMANUEL 4052 Gender Differentials in Health Status
and Socio-Economic Wellbeing of
Older Persons in Lagos State, Nigeria.
CHIOMA J. OBI 40nOil, Gender and Agricultural Child
Labour in the Niger Delta Region of
. Nigeria: Implications for Sustainable
Development.
TA WANDA RUNHARE & 4 I 00 Loss of Learning Space within a
SALOSIINA VANDEYAR Legally Inclusive Education System:
Institutional Responsiveness to
Mainstreaming of Pregnant Learners in
Formal Education.
UGOJI, F. N 4125 Parental Marital Status and Peer
Influence as Correlates of Teenage
Pregnancy among Female Teens in
South-South Nigeria.
IFIJEH GOODLUCK I. & 4139 Issues in Girl-Child Education in
OSA VANDE ODARO Nigeria: implications for library and
Information Support.
III
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NAME OFAUTHORS TITLE OF ARTICLES
JOHN M. PATRICK & 4151 Gender Issues in urban Indigenous
CHRISTANAH N. lJAH Communities in Nigeria: Evidence
from Port Harcourt
SALOSHNA VANDEYAR & 4161 Articulating Cultures: Socio-Cultural
THIRU~ELLVAN VADEYAR Experiences of Black Female
Immigrant Students in South African
Schools.
l:lUSSAINATU ABDULLAHI & 4189 Gender Bias and Citizenship Rights to
YAHYA Z. AllDULLAHI Political Participation in Nigeria:
Challenges for Democratic
Consolidation and Economic
Development
ATAMAN, J. E & ODIONM. 4207 Youth Contract of Some Sexually
ODAMAN Transmitted Infections (STls) in Edo
Central, Nigeria.
LINA HANDA YANI, AZLINA 4217 Validity and Reliability of
Md. KOSNIN, YEO KEE JIAR, Breastfeeding Attitude Scale in
I-IENRY O. IMHONDE Indonesian Population.
ADENIKE E. IDOWU,' 4224 Maternal Health Challenges and
MICHAEL O. OSINAIKE, & Prospects for National Development: A
MOFOLUWAKE P. AJA YI Case Study of Badagry Local
Government, Lagos State.
OLUJIDE A. ADEKEYE, 4247 Domestic Violence in Semi-
OLUREMI H. ABIMBOLA, & Urban Neighbourhood.
. SUSSAN O. ADEUSI
AWOPETU R. GRACE & 4262 Psychosocial Factors Influencing
FASANMI S. SUNDAY Attitude towards Abortion among
Undergraduates in Nigeria.
OSEZUA 0 CLEIVIENTINA 4276 Cross-Border Sex Trade, Transnational
Remittances and Changing Family
Structure among Benin People of
Southern Nigeria
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NAME OF AUTHORS TITLE OF ARTICLES
OLUFUNKE CHENUBE, 4298 A Survey of Alcohol Vulnerability of
SIMEON DOSUMU, MARY Male Prison Inmates in Nigeria.
OMOMOYESAN,& FLORENCE
OIVlUIVIU
Abstracting & Indexing 4308
PsycTNFO Journal 4309'
Ulrich International Dlrcctory 4310
Reach Us 4311
Sabine! Online 4312
Iuvit atlon to Subscribe 4313
Co mmu nicn tio n with the. Editors 4314
Ire Psychologia (Re LAZO 11934) 4315
Ire Psyclrologia 4316
Afri ca u Journals Online 4317
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. -Gender & Behaviour; Volume 9 Number 2, December 2011
CiJpyn·glU·© 2011. lfe Center for Psychological Studies & Services Ile-Ife, Nigeria
PERCEIVED HIV STIGMATIZATION, HIV/AIDSCOGNITION
. AND PERSONALITY AS CORRELATES OF HIV SELF-
DISCLOSURE AMONG PEOPLE; LIVING WITH HIV IN IBADANj
NIGERIA
Adebayo O. ADEJUMO'
Department of Psychology
University of Ibadan , Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
The relationship between perceived HIV
stigmatization, mv/AIDS cognition, personality
.and HIV self-disclosure (HSDj was investigated.
The influence of age and gender on these was also
examined.·· PLWHA (N421) in Ibadan, Nigeria
participated in the cross-sectional study. A positive
relationship of extraversion (r=-. 738, df=421,
P<.05), HIV cognition (r=-.621, df=421, P<.05),
neuroticism (r=-.212, df=421, P<.05) and
agreeableness personality traits (r=-.155,df=421,
P<,OS) with HSD was observed. A 2x2x2x2 factorial
analysis showed that old females, with low
perceived stigmatisation, but. with goodHIV
cognition (n=23, X =18.2, SD=3.8) were most likely
to disclose their status. Perceived stigmatisation,
HIV cognition, and personality jointly predicted
HSD (R2=.S2; F (3,418) =.7.66 P <.05). Negative
HIV cognition, perceived stigmatization, openness
and conscientious personality traits are major
barriers to HSD. ·Non· disclosure remains an
enormous barrier to the fight against HIV and
AIDS. Policies and actions should therefore focus
on these issues in HIV prevention, care and
support.
Key words: HIV self- disclosure, Stigmatisation,
personality, psychosocial factors, HIV self-
disclosure, Nigeria. .
Introduction
In Nigeria, an estimated 4.6 percent of the population are
living with HIV and AIDS (UNGASS, 2010). Although HIV.
prevalence is much lower in Nigeria than in other African
countries such as South Africa and Zambia, the size of Nigeria's
(l<j"j0n@..,!y2@y!!'h.9Q,.~.9JIl. / pgYJL'lo.9..tilJI!).ft<Aldl!?'!Q.D.!9.&:e.l Mobile Tel. No. +23.4-803·491 ·9002.
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
population (around 149 million) meant that by the end of 2009,
there were about 2.98 million people living with HIV. AIDS is not
onlyc1aiming so many lives, about 192,000 in 2009, Nigeria's life
expectancy has declined significantly. The average life expectancy
was 54 years for women and 53 years for men in 1991 (UNGASS,
2010). However, in 2009 these figures had fallen to 48 for women
and 46 for men (CIA, 2010). HIV transmission has been linked to
HIV non disclosure (Galletly & Pinkerton, 2006; Rubin, 2007; and
Ogundahunsi, Daniel, & Oladapo,' 2007). Understanding the
psychological factors related to' HIV/ AIDS. disclosure among
people living with HIV/ AIDS (PLWHA) to others is a critical issue
for HIV prevention and care efforts (Rubin, 2007).
HIV self disclosure is the tendency of an individual to be
free to autonomously discuss his/her HIV status with a sexual
partner, family, or units of a society. Unfortunately, the potential
for rejection, abandonment, physical and emotional abuse and
other adverse consequences create' substantial barriers to
disclosing HIV status (Rothenberg & Paskey, 1995), HIV
disclosure is a complex issue since quite often disclosure of
status is also linked to disclosure of other clandestine behaviour's
(such as same sex activity, injection drug use, or any HIV risk
behaviour (Adejumo,2004). The link between situational or
dispositionalfactorsanci health behaviour is documented in
literature (Elwood & Carter, 2003). It is therefore necessary to
investigate the relationship between psychological factors and HIV
self-disclosure from a sub-Saharan Africa perspective.
Data throughout the world suggests that failure to disclose
HIVstatus is related to three major problems. First, substantial
numbers of new HIV infections could occur among partners of
HlV-positive persons who do not disclose their status (Mohammed
& Kissinger, 2006; and Barnes, 2007). Second it could also hinder
access toante-retroviral therapy (Sullivan, 2005; Ogundahunsi,
Daniel, & Oladapo, 2(08). Third, failure to disclose could hinder
social support required for mental health (Derlega et al, 1993;
Pennebaker et al,1993).
Numerous factors have been associated with HIV status
disclosure. HlV-infected individuals are more likely to disclose to
a partner whom they know is HlV-positive than to an HIV-
negative or unknown sere-status partner (Niccolai et al, 2006;
Marks and Crepaz, 2001). A short duration of relationship,
polygamous marriage, working out of home, not knowing someone
with HIV and lower income were negatively associated with
disclosure in a study conducted in Tanzania (Antelrnan, 2001).
Self efficacy and social' support have also been found to be
positively associated with HIV disclosure (Kalichman &
Nachirnson, 1999; Degefa, 2003).
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Aadejumo. A. 0; Correlates of HfVl AIDS self-disclosure among People living with HfVl AIDS
Similarly, there is documented evidence linking gender with
HIV status di sclos ur-e.vIn a study conducted in South Africa,
males were found to disclose their result more often to partner
than females (Skogmar, 2006). In contrast, another South African
study revealed that male sex is associated with non-disclosure of
HIV status (Olley, Seedat, & Stein, 2004). However, relatively little
is known about the relationship between perceived stigmatisation,
HfV/ AIDS cognition,' and personality on one hand and HIV self
disclosure. .
AS reported by Olley, Seedat, & Stein, (2004), data indicate
that HIV positive patients do not disclose their serostatus, and in
fact may be ignorant of their sexual partners' serostatus. Perry et
al for example found that almost a third of HIV positive men and
women had not disclosed their serostatusto their present or past
sexual partners (Perry et al, 1994). Stein et al found that 40% of
sexually active men and women living with HIV in a community
sam pic had not disclosed their HIV status to their sexual partners
(Stein, 2003). In a community sample, Kalichrnan and Nachimson
found that 41% of HIV positive persons had not disclosed their
serostatus with their sexual partners (Kalichman & Nachirnson ,
1999)_ Another study involving 206 HIV positive men of mixed
sexual orientation revealed that 48% had not disclosed their
serostatus with their sexual partners. Consistent with these
findings, a recent report of 105 revealed that HIV positive men did
not disclose their sero positive status with their at risk sexual
partners (Marks & Crepaz, 2001). Looking at these, effective HIV
disclosure decision-making is a difficult challenge facing most
people living with HIV~AIDS, particularly within the context of
their scxualrelationships.
As at 2003, 31 states in the USA had. statutes making
sexual contact without disclosure a criminal offence (Marks,
Richardson & Cr epaz, 2002). Also in many states in the USA,
health professionals are mandated to report to the appropriate
authorities HIV-seropositive individuals who have unprotected sex
withoulinforming their partners of their HIV infection. Civil
liberty lawyers contend that these statutes may actually hamper
disclosure by opening up the possibility of later arrest. These
psychosocial, practical, arid legal barriers may contribute to the
refusal of many individuals with HIV to divulge their serostatus to
sexual partners.
The role of perceived stigmatisation, HIV/ AIDS cognition,
and personality on one hand and HIV self disclosure has not been
well documented in literature. Individuals with' extraversion
personality type had been found to be more willing to disclose
their status to their sex partner (Costa, 2007). Hennessy also
reported the relationship between personality and HIV disclosure
::\RSn
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Gender & Behaviour: 9(1). ion
ina USA study (Hennessy, 2010). Other studies also
suggest that of men who are HIV-positive with positive cognition,
only between 42% and 48% report disclosing their seros tatus to
sexual partners before engaging in unprotected intercourse
[Ciccaroneet al, 2003, Marks & Crepaz, 2001. These suggest that
a possible . link between psychological factors and Hl'V self
disclosure. . .
.As defined in Encarta Dictionary, to stigmatize an individual
is. to label the person as socially undesirable, or label somebody
as unacceptable. The concept, cognition means the mental faculty
or process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning,
intuition, or perception. 'Personality on the other hand has been
defined as the totality of someorie's attitudes, interests,
behavioural patterns, emotional response, social roles, and other
individual traits that endure over long periods of time (Encarta
Dictionary, 2008).
The goal of this study is to assess the relationship between
HIV disclosure among PLWHA and psychological factors namely;
perceived stigmatisation, HIV cognition, and personality.
Specifically, the objectives of the study are to:
i. discover if psychological factors (perceived stigmatisaticn, HIV
cognition, and personality) will have any relationship with HIV
disclosure among PLWHAand
ii. examine if there will be differences in the factorial
combinations of the influences of psychosocial factors ( age and
gender) on HIV status disclosure.
Method
This correlational study adopted a cross-sectional design.
The independent variables were perceived stigmatization, HIV
cognition and personality. The dependent variable was HIV self
disclosure. This design was 'also used in a similar study
conducted by Rubin, (Rubin, 2007).
The study was conducted in four centres for PLWHA in
lbadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The centres were; Adeoyo Maternity
Hospital, Ibadan, APIN/ PEPFAR units at St. Mary Hospital, Eleta,
lbadan, Family Health and Population Action Council, Ibadan,
and Association for Reproductive and Family Health (AFRH),
lbadan. Ibadan city. These sites were selected because of their
focus and involvement in caring for PLWHA.
PLWHA in the centres participated. Prospective participants
were required to fulfil an inclusion-exclusion criteria including:
1. Diagnosed as HI\' positive before the study
2. Currently registered with any of the four centres caring for
PLWHA In Ibadan
3. English literate and
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
. . . .
.. ~adejillno, A. 0;: Correlates ~fH.JV/ATD:' self-disclesure among Peopl~ living ivith HIV/ ATDS
4. Per sorially willing to : participate after an informed consent
process
Even though about 765 PLWHA were fully registered at the
Centres, only about ,500 of them fulfilled the. inclusion criteria,
and were purposively included as participants. Of these, 421
. questionnaires were correctly filled and returned, representing
84.2 % response rate. These were made up of 278 (66(Yo)females
and 143 (34%) males. The participants' age ranged between 23
and 52 years with a .mean age of 34 years.
Instruments: Data was collected with the use of an 80-item self-
report questionnaire made up of five sections. The 8-item Section
A was designed to tap information about respondents' socio-
demographic characteristics. Such information included: gender,
age, marital status, religion, HIV disclosure status, .educational
background, and vocation/profession. Section B had 10 items. It
contained the HIV self disclosure scale developed by Kalichman &
Nachimson (Kalichman & Nachimson, 1999). The scale is
designed in a Likert format with responses ranging between
strongly agree and strongly disagree. Kalichrnan (2000) reported a
Cronbach alpha Of .85 (Kalichman, 2000), but are-validation
during this study yielded a Cronbach alpha of .79, The norms
established during this study was (N= 421, X=28.6, SD= 13.5).
The higher the score on the scale, the higher disclosure rate, and
vice versa.
Section C of the questionnaire developed by Berger et al,
(2001) . had 40 items designed to obtain information on HIV
perceived stigmatization. The self-report Likert-type instrument
has four graduated reeponses ranging from strongly agree to
strongly disagree. It had a reliability coefficient of .96; a re-
validation yielded an alpha coefficient of .79. The mean obtained
was (N= 421, X =99.2, SD= 4.8). Any score below the mean implies
low perceived HIV stigmatization.
Section D of'the questionnaire had the 10 item personality
inventory developed by Rammstedt and John (2007-). It required
the respondents to rate their personality on five traits:
extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and
openness to experience. The authors reported a Cronbach alpha
of .86, but a re- validation yielded an alpha coefficient of .85. The
reliability reported for each of the sub-scales include; openness
(.79), conscientiousness (.82), exti'1:tversion (.89), agreeableness
(.74), and neuroticism (.86). A revalidation of the sub-scales
. produced the following reliability v.alues; openness (.75),
. conscientiousness (.80), extraversion (.89), agreeableness (.72),
and neuroticistn(.81). The short version personality inventory has
a 5-point rating scale with responses ranging from strongly agree
tbstrongly disagree. To interpret an individual's score, any score
3858
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Gellder &.iJehuy;vllr. Y(l). Jill I
above the mean for. each' of the subscales indicate a higher
predisposition to the iper soriality trait being assessed, and vice
versa. The norms obtained during the study were; openness (X
=7.3, SD=2.1), extraversion (X=6.7,SD=2.0), agreeableness (X
=6.2,SD=2.1), and neuroticism (X=6.0,SD=2.0).
, Section Ewas a 12 -itern self report scale developed by D.
Shaht6 measure HIV cognition among PLWHA. It has a 5-point
graded responses ranging from "had thought very frequently" to
"had thought very occasicnally". The developer reported a
reliability coefficient of .91. Are-validation during this study
yielded an internal coefficient of .90. Any score above the mean
and standard deviation (N= 421, X =38.2, SD= 20.5) is interpreted
as good HIV cognition, vice versa (Shah, Thornton, & Burgess,
1997).
Data Collection: The. researcher obtained permission from the
Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, to conduct the
study. Being a vulnerable group, the researcher thereafter sent
the protocol for further institutional review and ethical approval
from the State Ministry of Health Research Ethics Committee,
which was granted following due ethical review process. The
researcher also discussed the protocol with the management of
the selected hospitals. Each of the Centres' management
'ascertained that the research is of minimal psychological or
physical harm {if any at all); the respective institutions thereafter
gave permission to conduct the study.
. At the centres, the medical records of the participants were
reviewed to identify potential participants that meet the inclusion-
exclusion criteria. While the participants waited at the clinics to
see their physicians, the researcher discussed the purpose of the'
study, and gave the questionnaires to prospective participants,
including a detailed informed consent document. Only willing and
consenting PLWHA in attendance at the clinics were recruited as
research participants. They were allowed to read the
questionnaire and respond accordingly. This took an average of
:30 minutes.
A total of 500 of them fulfilled the inclusion criteria in the
four Centres, and were purposively included as participants. Of
these, only 421 questionnaires were correctly and completely
filled. Completed questionnaires were sorted, coded, and entered
into. the Statistical Package for Social Sciences for data artalysis.
Results
Table 1: 2x2x2x2 factorial Table showing influence of gender, age,
perceived stigmatization, and H1V cognition on HIV self disclosure.
3859
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Aadejumo, A O. correiotes of HIV/ AIDS self-disclosure among People I(ving with HIV/ AIDS
Gender Age ~ c:: Level of HIV!II-o !II t:: .~.o~.D Disclosure Rank
" ';:1 o.
.~ oj ';a:1 ~ .~ onh «l
~:.~ c X
a.4...) .--. 0 2:r·~
1! >
(j) .~ ::u t::'-~ .0
n X SO
.Male LoY" Poor MYLP 4c.,. 10.9 2.4 15th
Young Good MYLG. 4 10 LO 16th
Hizh Poor MYHP 1'7 12,3 4.3 14th
Good MYHG 28 13.9 4.9 12th.
Low Poor MOLP 18 12.7 4.6 13th
Old Good MOLG 6 16.6 5.1. 8th
High Poor MOHP 9 17.7 4.4 3,d
Good MOl-! ig 17.8 4.1 2nd
G
Female Low Poor FYLP 41 14.8 5.0 11th
Good FYLG 17 17 . 4.6 5th
Young High Poor FYHP 23 16 4.9 9th
Good FYHG 40 17.2 5:0 4th
Low Poor FOLP 64 15.5 5.0 lOth
Good . FOLG 23 18.2 3.8 1"
Old Hizh Poor FOHP 16 16.8 4.7 6th
Good FOHG 54 16.8 4.6 6th
Total 421
Table 1 revealed the influence of gender, age, perceived
stigmatization, and HIV cognition on HIV self disclosure among
PLWI-IA in this study. It could be observed that those who were
females, old, low on perceived stigmatisation, but with good HIV
cognition recorded the highest mean (n=23, X =18.2, SD=3.8) on
HIV self disclosure. The group with (he second. most likely
tendency to disclose their HIV status are those who are males,
old, with high scores in perceived HIV stigmatization, but good in
HIV cognition (n=i9, X=17.8, SD=4.1). Male respondents who are
old, with high scores in perceived stigmatisation, but with poor
I-IIV cognition (n=9, X =17.7, SD=4.4) ranked third. on I-IIV self
disclosure. Also young male PLWI-IA'with high levels of perceived
HIV discrimination and poor I-IIV cognition ranked fourteenth
(n=17, X =12.3, SD=4.3). Young male PLWI-IA with low levels of
perceived HIV discrimination and poor HIV cognition ranked
fifteenth (n=42, X =10.9, SD=2.4). The group with the least
likelihood of disclosing their I-IIV status include young male
PLWHA with low levels of perceived HIV discrimination and good
HIV cognition (n=4, X =10, SD=1.0).
Table 2: Pearson correlation Table showing relationship between
Personality, Perceived HN stigmatisation, HIV cognition and HN
Disclosure
3860
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Gender & Behaviour; 9(2). 2011
.7'38**
PS -.392 1.0 .153** .141*' .350'* .364*' .379** .425**
HC .621H .153** 1.0 .197'~ .141** .194** :236** .259**
0 -.549 .141** .197** 1.0 .208** .138** ..136** .202**
C -.044 .350** .141'* .208*" 1.0 .235** .256** .268**
E .738** .364** .194** .138** .235** 1.0 .218" ..302"
A .155'* .379*' .236*' 136** .256** .218** 1.0 .308**
N .212** .425** .259** .202" .268** .302'* .308" l.0
**Correlatlon IS Significant at the 0.01 level.
Key: HSD=HIVself disclosure, PS=Perceived HIV stigmatisation,
HC~Health Cognition, 0= Openness, C= Conscientiousness, E=
Extraversion, A=Agreeableness, N=Neuroticism
Table 2 above shows that extraversion yielded the strongest
significant positive relationship with HIV self disclosure (r=-.738,
df=421, P<.05). It means that as a PLWHAs' predisposition
towards extraversion increases, the individual's tendency to
disclose his/her HIV status also increases. This was followed by
HIV cognition (r=-.621, df=421, P<.05). Neuroticism (r=-.212,
df=421, P<.05) and agreeableness personality characteristics (r=-
.155, df=421, P<.05) also showed significant, but weak positive
relationship with HIV self disclosure. However, openness
personality characteristic showed the strongest significant inverse
relationship with HIV .self disclosure(r=-. 549, df=421, P<.OS),
followed by perceived stigmatisation (r=-.392, df=421, P<.05), and
lastly conscientious personality (r=-.044, df=421, P<.05) with the
weakest relationship.
Table 3: Regression Table showing personality characteristics
and psyc hIo' ozrca 1 factors as predictors 0f HIV seIf dilSC 1osure
Predictor Beta PI S~_B I R2 I R21 TCum IP
F
. variables
Personality
Variables
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
.Aadejwno, A. ·0; Correlates of I-frvl AIDS self-disclosure 0010119 People living .untli I-frvi AIDS
Openness to 3.23 .103 .05 .05 1.41 NS
experience
6.63 <.05
Coriscie n tio ·2.47 .019 .05 .10 1.47 NS
usness
Extraversion 2.80 .012 .36 .46 3.95 <.05
Agreeablene -1.89 -.065 ell .57 2.20 <.05
ss
Neuroticism -2.08 .. 0lD .15 .72 2.60 <.05
Psychologica
I factors
Perceived -3.48 -.035 .03 .03 -.59 NS 7.66 <.05
HIV
Stigrnatiza.t~
on
HIV -1.90 -.201 .32 .35 3.48 <.05
cognition
Personality ,236 .091 .16 .52 2.67 <.05
Table 3 shows that the five. personality factors jointly predicted
HIV self disclosure; (R2=,72; F(5,416) =6.63; P<,05), Extraversion,
(R2 =.36; F(3,418} =3.95, P<.05), neuroticism, (R2=.15; F(5,416)
=3.95, P<.05), and agreeableness (R2=.1 '1; F{1,420) =2.20, P<.05)
also had significant independent effect in predicting HIV self
disclosure. However, conscientiousness, (R2=.05; F{1,420) =1.47,
P>.05), as well as openness to experience, (R2=.05; F{l,420)
ee 1.41, P>.05) had no significant influence in predicting HIV self
.disclosure. The value ofR square (R2) indicated these. The R2
indicates the amcuntofcontribution of the independent variables
to the prediction of the dependent variables, Thus, extraversion
contributed 36% to HIV self disclosure, neuroticism contributed
15%, agreeableness accounted for 11% of the variation in HIV self
disclosure, and the five personality trait jointly contributed 72%
to HIV self disclosure. Table 3 also shows that perceived
stigmatisation, HIV cognition, and personality significantly jointly
predicted HIV self disclosure (R2=.52; F (3,418) =.,7.66 P <.05),
explaining 52% of the variance in HIV self disclosure. In terms of
significant independent influence in predicting HIV self
disclosure, HIV. cognition contributed mostly, yielding 32%.
Perceived HIV stigmatization contributed 3%, while personality
accounted for 16% variance in HIV self disclosure. This means
HIV cognition independently predicted HIV self disclosure most
significantly:
Table 4: T-test Table showi ng igende-r and age differences on
HIV self disdosure
Gender N I X [sn I Of I T IIpMale 143 I 1.34 1.47 I 419 I -5.66 >.05
Female 278 I 1.52 I .48 I I
Age
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Gender & Behaviour; 9(2). 2011
Table 4 results indicate that males and females were not
significantly different on their score in HIV Self Disclosure t (420)
=' -5.66, p< 0.5, While the mean score of male. PLWHA was X
=1.34, female PLWHA had a mean score of )(=1.52 in the study.
The hypothesis stating that there is a significant mean difference
between young and old PLWl-lA on HIV disclosure was therefore
not confinned.
The hypothesis stating that there will a significant difference
between young and old PLWHA on HIV disclosure was supported t
(419) = -3.82; P<:05.The means score of young was (X=1.44) while
that of old was ('X =1.62). This means old people living with HIV
disclosed better than younger ones. Table 4 revealed that the
number of young people living with HIV was (11.=212) while old
people was (11.=209). .
Discussion
The results from the present study show that only HIV cognition
and personality (extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism)
had significant positive relationship with HIV self disclosure, but
HIV cognition was more related. Perceived stigmatization and
personality (openness and conscientiousness) had inverse
relationship with HIV disclosure. Males were not significantly
different from females in HIV Self Disclosure, but old PLWHA were
more willing to disclose their HIV status than young PLWHA. It
was also discovered that old females with low perceived
Gtigmatisation, but with good HIV cognition were most likely
willing to disclose t.he.r HIV status followed by older males with
high scores in perceived HIV stigmatization, but good in HIV
cognition. On the other hand, individuals that are most unlikely
to disclose their HIV status are young male PLWHA with low
levels of perceived HIV discrimination and good HIV cognition,
followed by young male PLWHA with low levels of perceived HIV
discrimination and poor HIV cognition.
The significance of HIV cognition in HIV self disclosure in
this study might be due to the connectedness between cognition,
perception, reasoning and knowledge. Elwood & Carter, (2003)
had earlier found that perception of illness influence individual
health behaviour, especially attitude and tendency to seek health
care (Serovich, 2001). It is also in agreement with the finding of
Ciccarone et al (2003) as well as Marks and Crepaz (2001), where
they discovered that of men who are HIV-positive with positive
cognition, only about half of them disclose their serostatus to
. 3863
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Aadejumo, A. 0; Correlates of HJV/ AiDS self-disclosure among People. living with HJV/ AIDS
sexual· partners before engaging in unprotected intercourse. An
individual's mental reasoning or perception about a specific
situation is more likely to influence the individual's mental
evaluation, attitude, and behaviour related to the event. This
means that if an individual sees HIV infection as challenging but
surmountable; with a basic understanding of the aetiology,
course, treatment and prognosis of the infection, such an
individual is likely to make a meaningful cost-benefit analysis of
HJV disclosure. With this the individual will make sound decision
based on adequate information and personal motivation to
disclose HIV status irrespective ofthe challenges.
In agreement. with earlier findings (Niccolai et al, 2006,
Olley, Seedat, & Stein, 2004), people who believe that PLWHA are
stigmatised in a society are very unlikely to disclose. their HIV
status to either their sex partners, employer, or members of their·
society. Going by this, information about HIV infection is believed
to be private and confidential; which if revealed, could lead to
rejection and stigmatization (Rothenberg, & Paskey, 1995). Yet
when HIV status is not disclosed to sexual partners, safer sexual
practices may not be followed, and further spread of the disease
may thereby result. This may be further explained by failure of
many governments to legislate and. enforce the protection of
PLWHA in work places where co-workers and employers often
discriminate against PLWHA. In many other cases employers
often feel reluctant to engage PLWHA Even when already actively
employed in an organisation, employers often sack staff known to
be HIV positive either as a result of the fear of infecting fellow
employees or fear of reduced productivity. In some other societies,
employers may also have the fear that consumer satisfaction and
patronage may reduce drastically if COnsumers or members of the
society discover that an organisation's services were provided by
PLWHA.
It is interesting to note that even though personality was
significantly related to HIV disclosure,' openness and
conscientious personality traits rather had an inverse
relationship. Openness to experience is about being inventive or
curious versus being cautious or conservative. People with high
scores in openness are expected to have appreciation for emotion,
adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience.
Similarly, conscientiousness is about being efficient or organised
versus being easy going or careless. Conscientious individuals
have a tendency to show self discipline, act dutifully, and aim for
achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behaviour. Since
an individual's personality is a major predictor of his/her
dispositions, characteristics and behaviour, therefore PLWHAs
who are conservative and emotional as well as those who are self
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Gender & BeIIllV;UII,.: 9(2). 2011
disciplined and resist spontaneous behaviour would more likely
be cautious in disclosing their HIVstatus. Hennessy (2010) also
reported that personality characteristics constitute a major factor
inHIV disclosure (Hennessy, 2010).
This also probably explains why extroverts, agreeable and
neurotic PLWHA were more willing to disclose their HIV status as
supported by the findings of Costa et al (Costa et al,2007).
Extroverts tend to seek stimulation in the company of others,
agreeable individuals compassionate and cooperative rather than
suspicious or antagonistic towards others, neurotic people have a
tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily. These reasons
might have accounted for the positive disposition of PLWHA with
these traits to disclose their HIV status.
Males were not significantly different from females in HIV
Self Disclosure, but old PLWHAwere more willing to disclose their
HIV status than young PLWHA. ,This contradicts the findings of
Skogmar et al (2006),' where they observed males to be
significantly more willing to disclose their HIV test result to their
sex partners than females. The above finding further explains the
wide variations in gender role and gender awareness in many
parts of Africa. In south west Nigeria where this study took place,
there is no significant-gender difference in people's tendency to
discriminate against PLWHA. Similarly, whether male or female
the society discriminates against PLWHA, hence the similarity in
the participants' stance on HIV status disclosure,
Conclusion
One of the major contributions Of this study to HIV/ AIDS
literature is that factorial combination of certain psychological
and socia-demographic factors yield differences in willingness to
disclose HIV status. For instance, it was discovered that old
females with low perceived stigrnatisation, but with good HIV
cognition were most likely willing to disclose their HIV status.
This implies that PLWHA with these characteristics are more
likely to wilfully disclose their HIV status. It also further confirms
the finding that older age, perceived stigmatisation and HIV
cognition are critical in predicting HIV disclosure. Older PLWHA
would be more willing to disclose their HIV status probably
because of maturation, experience and reduced sexual activity.
Similarly, PLWHA w.th the perception that they suffer less
discrimination will be more willing to disclose their status
because they are likely La still feel acceptable by members of the
society, hence will be dis-inhibited to disclose their HIV status.
On the other hand, young male PLWHA with low levels of
perceived HIV discrimination and good HIV cognition are most
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r
/vadejumo, A. 0; Correlates of HIV/ AIDS self-disclosure among People living with HrV/ AIDS
unlikely to disclose their HIV status because of perceived
emotional irisecurity, immaturity, and fear of rejection.
It could therefore be concluded that negative HIV
cognition, perceived stigmatization are major barriers to HIV self
disclosure among PLWHA. These factors as well as personality are
related to HIV status disclosure. Extroverts will be more willing to
disclose their HIV status while PLWHA with high disposition
towards conscientiousness and openness to experience
personality will be more unwilling to disclose their HIV status.
Serovich (2001) also found that fears of rejection and
abandonment, discriminating treatment such as eviction or
tcrmination of employment, retribution, violence, and other forms
.of abuse are Significant disincentives and barriers to revealing
one's HIV diagnosis persist [Serovich , 2001).
HIV non disclosure remains an enormous barrier to the
fight against HlV and AIDS. The lesson learnt here is that social
stigma in term of prejudice , discrimination and other forms of
stigmatization are major barriers to HIV disclosure. Are-focussing
of HIV/ AIDS prevention programmes on these factors by policy
relevant policy makers, programme planners in governmental and
non-governmental organisations is critical not only for HIV
prevention, but the care and support of PLWHA.
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