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MACROPHAGES, MAN AND THE
ENVIRONMENT: MY LIFE'S STORY
An inaugural lecture delivered
at the University of lbadan
on Thursday, 16 ]uiy,2015
By
VICTOR OLUSEGUN TAIWO
;' Professor of Veterinary Pathology,
.Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Ibadan,
, Ibadan, Nigeria.
UNIVERS,ITY OF IBADAN
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Ibadan University Press
Publishing House
University of Ibadan
Ibadan, Nigeria.
© University of Ibadan, 2015
Ibadan, Nigeria
First Published 2015
All Rights Reserved
ISBN: 978 - 978 - 8456 - 84-1
Printed by: Ibadan University Printery
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The Vice-Chancellor, Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Administra-
tion), Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic), The Registrar and
other Principal Officers, Provost of the College of Medicine,
Dean of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Deans of other
Faculties and Postgraduate School, Dean of Students,
Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen.
Preamble
An inaugural lecture is an opportunity for a newly-promoted
Professor to give details of what has made himlher to get to
that stage of his/her academic and research career and to
stand before an august gathering such as this to give some
details of how he/she came about the same. On 01 October,
2006, I was pronounced a Professor of Veterinary Pathology
of this great and Premier University in Nigeria having been
found eminently worthy of such distinction. This makes
almost nine years since then.
First and foremost, I would like to give thanks to God
Almighty, the Creator of Heaven and Earth, my Alpha and
Omega for deeming me fit and healthy to stand before you
today to give this lecture and for the Dean, Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine, Professor Matthew Olugbenga
Oyeyemi for nominating me to deliver the lecture on behalf
of our great Faculty this year.
Mr. Vice-Chancellor, Sir, this is the 35th inaugural lecture
from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the 5th from the
Department of Veterinary Pathology since its establishment
in 1970. The first inaugural lecture from the Department was
delivered by Professor Turner Teminipre Isoun on Thursday,
19 May, 1977 with the title "Animal Protein Malnutrition and
the Science of Disease"; the second was delivered by
Professor Basil Orioghae Ikede on Thursday, 13 May, 1982
with the title "Living and Dying in Creatures Great and
Small", and the third was delivered by Professor Victor
Onwubalili Anosa on Thursday, 16 May, 1987 with the title
"Trypanosomes, Man, Animal Protein and Disease. The
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fourth was delivered by Professor Stephen Owarioro Akpavie
on Thursday, 07 February, 2008 with the title "Animal
Disease Patterns and Protein Supply in Nigeria". Mine is the
fifth in the series from our department.
The Vice-Chancellor, distinguished ladies and gentlemen,
you will notice that the phrases "Animal Protein", "Disease",
and "Living and Dying" are common denominators in all of
these previous lectures. The title of my lecture today -
Macrophages, Man and the Environment: My Life's Story
(not a typical auto-biography), may seem out-of-place, but
surely encompasses all these "pathology phrases" and further
elucidates why animals, humans and our environment get sick
and die because of what Man (and the Macrophage) do or do
not do as "divine, God-given, keepers" of their respective
environments, and how I got myself involved.
About 32 years ago, after graduating with a D.V.M degree
(with Distinctions in Veterinary Pathology, Clinical
Pathology and Public Health and Preventive Medicine), from
this great Institution, I had an option of quietly returning to
Ogun State as a career civil servant/veterinary doctor or
continuing with academics. I was successfully lured into the .
Department of Veterinary Pathology, first as Youth Corper
and later as Temporary Lecturer II in 1984 and 1986,
respectively, by the combined efforts of my academic fathers
and mentors, Professor Basil Orioghae Ikede and Professor
Victor Onwubalili Anosa, because of my brilliant
performance in the subject area of Veterinary Pathology.
Between these two giants and under their tutelage, I was
nurtured and to be what I am today, a proud and fulfilled
Pathologist. More information on this shall be given later.
Mr. Vice-Chancellor, many people, including the
educated and the learned often think, or believe and say that
Pathologists are ONLY concerned with the DEAD. Nothing
can be farther from the reality. It is absolutely true that
Pathologists perform post-mortems on dead animals, which
not only determines the animal's cause(s) of death, but also
discover more information about the cellular, ultra-structural
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and molecular progression of an on-going disease, proffer
advice on its mitigation to the clinician and offer advice on its
ultimate prognosis. A pathologist also examines tissue
biopsies to determine if they are benign growths and shares
the information with the clinician. He may also recommend
what can be done to prevent illness and maintain good health.
For example, when blood is drawn, or biopsy is taken, as part
of routine physical and/or medical examination, the
pathologist supervises and performs the tests to help asses~
the patient's state of health. That is why the subject,
Pathology, is at the core and centre of Medicine.
Mr. Vice-Chancellor, distinguished ladies and gentlemen,
you may not hear much about death or such things from me
today, but about what may lead to or prevent it. Let me now
proceed to give you a treatise on each of the tripod of my
lecture today, viz. Macrophage, Man and the Environment,
the basis of my talk today, and I will later go on to reveal how
I got myself involved with them.
Introduction
The Macrophage
The macrophage (fig. 1), is a bone marrow-derived
mononuclear cell (Gordon and Taylor 2005) that circulates in
the blood as peripheral blood monocytes (PBM), can engage
in pinocytic and phagocytic activities or those that have
"homed" into tissues/organs in the steady state or in response
to inflammatory or disease conditions (van Furth et al. 1985),
and various chemotactic factors resulting in macrophage
populations that are referred to as resident macrophages.
Macrophages are about the largest, most versatile and
widespread group of cells in the body.
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Fig. 1: A Giemsa-stained macrophage (left) containing engulfed particles
(arrows), with typical bluish-grey foamy cytoplasm and equally foamy
nucleus. Another at TEM (right) with abundant cytoplasm and engulfed
particles (Courtesy: Zucker-Franklin et al. 1988).
Resident macrophages can be found inmany tissues and organs,
including connective tissue, liver, lung, lymph nodes, spleen,
bone marrow, serous fluids, skin and others where they assume
specialized forms, characteristics and functions table 1 and
figure 2 show the various types of macrophages and their names
in many organs and tissues. Some types of macrophages
identified either by expression of distinct surface
receptors/markers or by discrete secretory products, may be
associatedwith distinct disease states.
Table 1: A List of Different Types of Macrophages with Different
Names in different Tissues and Organs in the Body
Adopted Macrophage Name Tissue/Organ Location
Monocyte Bone MarrowlBlood
Adipose tissue macrophages Adipose tissue
KupfIer cell Liver
Sinus histiocytes Lymph node
Alveolar macrophage(dust cell) Lungs
Tissue macrophage (Histiocyte) Connective Tissue
Langerhan's cell Skin and Mucosa
Microglia Central Nervous System
Hofbauer cell Placenta
Intraglomerular mesangial cell Kidney
Osteoclasts Bone
Epithelioid cells Granulomas
Red Pulp Macrophage (Sinusoidal lining cells) Red pulp of Spleen
Peritoneal macrophages Peritoneal cavity
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Examples of pecialized Macrop age POJ)Ul2ltj'o S .
Fig. 2: Graphical representation of locations, names and associated
functions of macrophages in the human body (adapted from Dietert
2014).
Multinucleated giant ceDs are derived by fusion of macro-
phages and have the capacity to function like macrophages in
host defence against infections, especially chronic infections.
. They are also engaged in the removal of large foreign objects
inhaled into the lungs.
Functions ofMacropbages
(a) Phagocytosis
One important role of the macrophage is the removal of
necrotic and other cellular debris in the tissues and organs
by phagocytosis. Removing infectious agents, dead
and unwanted cell or particulate materials is important
in chronic inflammation, as the early stages of inflammation
are dominated by neutrophils (also known as microphages),
which are ingested and destroyed by macrophageswhen they
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come effete (worn-out or aged). The remammg debris, or
what is left of the particle, exits the macrophage to be
absorbed back into the body. The removal of necrotic tissue
is, to a greater extent, handled by fixed macrophages, which
will stay at strategic locations such as the lungs, liver, neural
tissue, bone, spleen and connective tissue, ingesting foreign
materials such as pathogens and locally proliferate and/or
recruit additional macrophages from the PBM, if needed.
Macrophage phagocytosis is a highly heterogeneous
phenomenon whose mechanism and biological outcome
depends on the nature of the receptors engaged, particles
internalized and activation state of the macrophage. For
example, phagocytosis mediated through Fe receptors leads to
pro-inflammatory outcomes, whereas complement-mediated
uptake does not initiate the same responses. Unlike the uptake
of infectious agents that cause pro-inflammatory responses,
phagocytosis of apoptotic cells result in anti-inflammatory
responses (Morrissette et al. 1999).
Macrophages are prodigious phagocytic cells that also
clear approximately 2 x lOll erythrocytes each day (see
fig. 3). This equates to almost 3 kg of iron and haemoglobin
per year that is 'recycled' for re-use by the host (Mosser and
Edwards 2008). This clearance process is a vital metabolic
contribution of the macrophage without which the host would
not survive. This activity is typified by the presence of
erythroblastic islands in the active bone marrow, consisting of
a central Nurse Cell surrounded by developing erythroblasts.
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Fig. 3: SEM of Bone-marrow-derived' macrophages phagocytising IgG-
coated red blood cells (Courtesy: 'J: Swanson and M.·Diakonova; in:
Morrissette et al. 1999). , \ J '.
, ,I
Nurse cells.are, specialized macrophages (fig. 4)~residing
in the bone marrow that 'assist. in the development of red blood
.. cells (Zucker-Franklin et al. 1988). They absorb the extruded
nuclei l(h,aematogon) of immature red i blood, cells (late
1\9lql}ol?last»s)andJr<>1alnd provide growth factors to h,elp the
red blood cells mature.' In the bone marrow, immature red
blood, cells (erythroblasts) can be seen grouped in a cluster
around a nurse cell. J .i' r' »
In the course of some disease 'conditions, such as in
haemoprotozoan diseases like trypanosomosis and malaria,
macrophages ill the bone marrow are involved in wanton
phagocytosis and destruction of immature red blood cells, and
white blood' cells as well, leading to ineffective erythro-
poiesis, dyshaemopoiesis and anaemia (Jain 1986; Taiwo and
Anosa 2000).
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Fig. 4: Left, a macrophage "nurse cell" with engulfed mature and
immature red cells, surrounded by developing erythoblasts. Right is
TEM of nurse cell with cytoplasmic blebs corresponding to Fe
transfer points (arrows and inset) to developing erythroid cells
(Zucker-Franklinetal. 1988).
(b) Immune Response
Macrophages constitute an important link between the innate
and adaptive immune systems through processing and
presentation of antigens (fig. 5) to T-cells and production of
cytokines and chemokines. The capacity of macrophages to
participate in these and other processes by directly or
indirectly influencing the bioactivities of other cells may
depend on the developmental stage and cell activation.
Macrophages take part in all phases of body's immune
response (both cytotoxic and antibody-mediated) as
phagocytic cells, and functionally distinct macrophage
populations provide for very flexible immune responses.
They also play key roles in host defences against intracellular
parasiticmicroorganisms and tumour cells.
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f~) li~.~1lItI
~
Fig. 5: Schema of antigen processing and presentation by a macrophage
(COurtesy:www.AlilaMedicalMedia.com).
(c) WoundHealing
Tissue macrophages play a critical role in wound healing by
producing chemo-attractants that recruit and activate additional
macrophages from nearby tissues and blood, growth factors that
promote cellular proliferation, proteases and extracellular matrix
molecules, and other factors that restrain tissue growth once repair
is completed. IL-4 is very important in this regard, as it stimulates
arginase activity in macrophages, allowing them to convert
arginine to ornithine, a precursor of polyamines and collagen,
thereby contributing to the production of the extracellular matrix
(Kreider et a1.2007).
Macrophage and the Cytokine Network
The immune system recognizes the presence of pathogens by several
proteins that bind to molecules secreted by the pathogens or carried on
their surface. The cells responsible for these immune responses include
.the B-Cells, T-Cells, macrophages, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils,
endo-thelial cells and mast cells. These cells produce a series of products
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jointly known as Cytokines (fig. 6). A very close look at this
figure would reveal that the macrophage is at the centre of the
network and produces or cause to be produced (by other cells)
most of the cytokines.
../O=f..CO=llI). "(0=4..1."-1)
t t
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.~
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--"""-,-\" ....-
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refers specifically to the broad class of activation
observed in response to challenge by microorganisms.
Classically-activated macrophages are strongly positive for
class II-MHC, and adapted to kill microorganisms and tumour
cells and present antigen to T lymphocytes. The classical
macrophage activating factor, produced by stimulated Thl·
lymphocytes and NK cells, is interferon-gamma (IFN-y). The
alternatively-activated macrophage is associated with Th2
activation and the cytokine, IL-4 (Gordon 2003); see figure 7.
~ .,:wm,~:tn
lla:lmfl$lliJffal!timl
_ :znmuf~j..;a!ncaer
~~
Inhibit cane growr.
~~Is
~~tntmune
:fum:1!lml
Promote cancer growth
Fig. 7: Classification of macro phages according to functional and secretory
diversity and roles in cancer (adapted from Schmid and Varner 20 10).
Macrophage populations have been shown to comprise distinct
subpopulations that are being referred to generally as
polarized macrophages. The term classically activated
macrophages (also called M1 macrophages) refers to
macrophages that have undergone activation in response
to lipolysaccharide (LPS) or gamma interferon). Classical
Ml macrophages have a pro-inflammatory phenotype
and are characterized by high expression of pro-inflammatory
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cytokines, iNOS expression, and production of reactive
oxygen species (Gordon 2003; Gordon and Taylor 2005;
Martinez et al. 2008, 2009). More generally speaking,
activation of macrophages by Thl cytokines (which includes
IFN-y and TNF-a) is referred to as type 1 activation (Gordon
2003). The cytokines expressed by Ml macrophages such as
IL-l~, TNF-a, IL-12, IL-6 are sometimes referred to as Ml
cytokines.
The term alternatively activated macrophages (also called
M2 macrophages) refers to macrophages having undergone·
cell activation in response to IL-4 or glucocorticoids (Gordon
2003; Martinez et al. 2008). These cells have an anti-
inflammatory phenotype. More generally speaking, cell
activation of macrophages by Th2 cytokines (which includes
IL-4 and IL-13) is referred to as type 2 activation (Ma et al.
2003). Alternatively activated macrophages generated in vivo
have a gene expression profile distinct from other
macrophage populations (Zhang et al. 2010). The cytokines
expressed by M2 macrophages, such as IL-1O, IL-lra, TGF-~
are referred to sometimes as M2 cytokines.
Like the Thlffh2 dichotomy, the MIIM2 distinction blurs
on the boundaries when one compares distinct types of
stimulus and individual cells. A more credible and sustainable
view could be explained as a range of macrophage
phenotypes in a spectrum of colours on a colour wheel
(fig. 8). Macrophages could be classified as "red", "yellow"
and "blue", but every combination and shade is possible and
they can be inter-converted. This kind of plasticity may
ensure that the number of "subsets" than can be defined is
infinite: a function of the number of markers and the micro-
environments where the macrophages arefound. These cells
thus can display a range of functional and morphological
phenotypes (expression of membrane-bound receptor and
secretory products). Mosser and Edwards (2008), have
reviewed the biology of different subpopulations of
macrophages and have suggested a macrophage classifica-
tion scheme based on the fundamental macrophage functions
that are involved in maintaining homeostasis.
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Fig. 8: Colour wheel of macrophage activation as proposed by Mosser
and Edwards 2008.
The "Bad" Macrophage: A Host for Intra-Cellular
Pathogens and a "Permissive Agent" For Diseases
Macrophages are also known to antagonize immune responses
or become permissive for infectious agents and disease process
to fester and hide infectious agents from the defence system of
the body. In their role as phagocytic immune cells, macrophages
are responsible for engulfing pathogens to destroy them. Some
pathogens subvert this process and instead live inside the
macrophage, thus providing an environment in which the
pathogen is hidden from the immune system and allows it to
replicate. Diseases with this type of behaviour include
tuberculosis, leishma-niasis, human immunodeficiency virus
infection, Ebola virus disease, cancer, among others. I will now
briefly talk about each of these diseases.
(a) Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), the cause of tuberculosis
in man and animals, is among the microorganisms most
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successful at adapting to long-term residence in macrophage
phagosomes. Inhalation of ~ITB leads to phagocytosis by
alveolar macrophages. In the advanced stages of myco-
bacterial infection, the host immune system tends to change
from a Thl-type to Th2-type immune response, resulting in
the abrogation of Th 1 cell- and macrophage-mediated
antimicrobial host protective immunity. This type of immune
conversion is occasionally associated with the generation of
certain types of suppressor macrophage populations
(Tomioka et al. 2012). Also, before macrophages are
immunologically activated, MTB blocks maturation of
phagosomes into phagolysosomes. The organism continues to
replicate until the onset of cell-mediated immunity, which
involves elaboration of IFN-y, allowing the macrophage to
proceed with phago somal maturation producing microbicidal
molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO). Surviving bacteria are
believed to enter a period of non-replicating persistence in the
phagosome until the waning of host's immunity leading to
reactivation from the latent state and the onset of disease.
Thus, adaptation of MTB to the phagosomal compartment of
the macrophage is an essential component of its pathogenesis,
transmission and continued survival as a life form.
(b) Leishmaniasis
Upon phagocytosis by a macrophage, the Leishmania parasite
finds itself in a phagocytic vacuole. Under normal
circumstances, this phagocytic vacuole would develop into a
phagolysosome and its contents would be digested.
Leishmania alters this process and avoid being destroyed;
instead, it makes a home inside the vacuole (Tomioka et al.
2012).
(c) Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection
Macrophages also play a role in Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV) infection. Like T cells, macrophages can be
infected with HfV, and even become a reservoir of ongoing
virus replication throughout the body. HIV can enter the
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macrophage through binding of gp120 to CD4 and second
membrane receptor, CCR5 (a chemokine receptor). Both
circulating monocytes and macrophages serve as reservoir for
the virus (Tomioka et al. 2012).
(d) Ebola Viral Disease
Ebola hemorrhagic fever is a severe viral infection
characterized by fever, shock and coagulation defects (Bray
and Geisbeit 2005). The disease has a very high case of
fatality rate {Wahl-Jensen et al. 2011). The recent and on-
going Ebola epidemic in West Africa is the worst in the
history of the neglected disease, with more than 26,600 cases
and almost 11,000 deaths so far (CDC 2014). Studies in
macaques show that major features of the disease are caused
by effects of viral replication in macrophages and dendritic
cells (Wahl-Jensen et al. 2011). Following infection, mono-
cytes and macrophages are among the first cells targeted by
the virus. These cells respond by increasing expression of
pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines that contribute
towards pathogenesis. Infected dendritic cells also secrete
pro-inflammatory mediators, but cannot initiate antigen-
specific responses (Bray and Geisberl 2005). As a result of
this, the virus. disseminates between macrophages and other
cell types throughout the body, causing multifocal necrosis
and a syndrome resembling septic shock. Massive
"bystander" apoptosis of natural killer and T cells further
impairs immunity (Bray and Geisbert 2005).
(e) Cancer
In cancer, during the neoplastic progression, macrophages as
well as dendritic and NK cells are attracted into the tumour
site and initiate the immune response against transformed
cells. They activate and present tumour antigens to T cells,
which are then activated to kill tumour cells. However,
tumour cells are often capable of escaping the immune
machinery. It is notable that tumour-associated macrophages
promote the proliferation of tumour cells directly by secreting
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growth factors and proteins that stop apoptosis and promote
cell proliferation and inflammation (Lamagna et al. 2006).'
They also participate in tumor progression by acting on
endothelial cells and thus promoting the neo-vascularization
of the tumor.
Macrophages are also known to play inglorious roles in
the pathogenesis and severity of other conditions such as
obesity, heart diseases and diabetes mellitus, which time and
space will not allow me to dwell on at this lecture.
Concluding on Macrophages, Vice-Chancellor, Sir, it is not
far-fetched from the fore-going to tag the Macrophage as a
"divinely appointed cell" given the role of protecting and
maintaining homeostasis in man and animals; though they
also play eminent roles in suppressing immune responses and
even covertly exacerbating the disease processes and
outcomes in animals and man. The definitions of the many
functional phenotypes of macrophages may have scientific
and diagnostic value, but the perspective should be
maintained that macrophages are not static and that the
functional and phenotypic changes occurring during
inflammatory and/or immune responses may not be
differentiation into stable, defined, functional phenotypes but
an evolving shift of functional activities in response to a
changing environment (fig. 9).
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~
"." bFGr •i••• ..MMPs•. II/Cp., POGF ••• ~rtas: ••• : ~,~ VfGF
\
Fig. 9: The shifting roles of the macrophage under changing "environ-
mental" conditions (Courtesy: Tomiokaetal. 2012).
In this context, defining macrophage subsets by membrane
protein and functional phenotype during inflammatory and/or
immune episodes might be akin to defining chameleons by the
colour pattern they display as they move across an artist's paint
palette (fig. 10).
_.__ :-
Fig. 10: Chameleon: Any shade or colour combination goes.
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Man
Mr. Vice-Chancellor, distinguished ladies and gentlemen, the
following divine phrase is very familiar, but powerful: "... in
the beginning, GOD created Man ...", However, the story
surrounding this phrase is not as smooth and straight-forward.
as it appears to be.
Man, His Origin and Diversity
Who is Man? Where did He come from? Why is He here?
The age-old question of the origin of man has been baffling
mankind for centuries. For most of history, it was widely
accepted that Man had been created by an Omnipresent,
Omnipotent, Omniscience God (or Gods). Most ancient texts
such as the Holy Bible, the Quran, Torah and The Sumerian
tablets seemed to all contain similar stories. Almost all
re.ligions are based on this God/creation pre.mise in some
form or another. It wasn't until the mid 1800's when Charles
Darwin introduced his Theory of Evolution.
Charles Robert Darwin (12 February, 1809 - 19April,
1882) said Evolution is a slow gradual process. He wrote: .
. ..Natural selection acts only by taking advantage
of slight successive variations; she can never take
a great and sudden leap, but must advance by
short and sure, though slow steps....
Darwin's theory questioned the Creation Theory, and since
then the "battle" between religion and science began.
Darwin's theory, whilescientifically sound, still leaves many
'questions unanswered: "Why the vast appearance and
chromosomal differences between cromagnon and Homo
sapiens?" "How did modem man seemingly just "appear" out
of nowhere, wearing clothing and organizing societies
(intelligent)?"; "What is the "missing link"?" "Which is the
truth? Science, Religion or a combination of both?" and
"Why are there different races of humans?"etc ....
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The Divergence and Confluence of Religion and Scientific
Creationism
The Holy Bible in Genesis 1:24-29 (NIV) accounts for the
Creation of Man and Animals (domestic and wild):
24And God said, "Let the land produce living
creatures according to their kinds: the livestock,
the creatures that move along the ground, and
the wild animals, each according to its kind."
And it was so.
2S God made the wild animals according to their
kinds, the livestock according to their kinds, and
all the creatures that move along the ground
according to their kinds. And God saw that it
was good.
26Then God said, "Let us make mankind in our
image, in our likeness, so that they may rule
over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky,
over the livestock and all the wild animals, and
over all the creatures that move along the
ground."
27 So God created mankind in his own image, in
the image of God he created them; male and
female he created them.
28 God blessed them and said to them, "Be
fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and
subdue it. Rule over the fish in the"sea and the
birds in the sky and over every living creature
that moves on the ground."
29Then God said, "I give you every seed-
bearing plant on the face of the whole earth and
every tree that has fruit with seed in it. They
will be yours for food.
All underlines are mine, and for emphasis.
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-_-Fromthe foregoing, one must ponder and realize that:
• man and animals were created separately by God, so
we are very sure that man did not evolve from apes as
what evolutionarists would like to make us believe
• man was created by God as superior to animals. In
fact, God purposely made man to rule over all animals
on earth
• man was created by God in His own image, points to
the fact that God created man for a certain purpose
• man did not just come about to live here on earth
without any reason
Yes, there is a divine plan conceived by the Almighty God,
for the Creation of Man.
For purely academic reasons, let us have a cursory look at
some of the points at the other side of Creation in order to
arrive at plausible courses and causes of Man's racial and
language diversities.
There are at least three hypotheses proposed for the
Origin of Man, as described by Richard Deem (2006) in a
Lecture titled "Origin of Mankind and the Races". The first
one is based on the Classical Hypothesisthat stated that Man
evolved from a series of Homo species (Homo ergaster and
Homo antecessor) into Neanderthals (Homo neandertalensis,
formerly Homo sapiens neandertalensis), which gave rise to
modem humans (Homo sapiens). This evolutionary
hypothesis is no longer considered to be valid by scientists
(Deem 2006; fig. 11). The second is based on the fact that
Man "originated from Africa". This evolutionary hypothesis
states that modem humans arose from H. neandertals or other
species of the genus Homo (Homo antecessor, Homo
ergaster) (fig. 11). The Neanderthals lived between 150,000
and 29,000 years ago in Europe and Western Asia.
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Fig. 11: Hypotheses for Creation of Man (Deem 2006).
Geographically and chronologically, their existence over-
lapped with that of modem humans. They are similar to
modem humans in that they are bipedals and have large brain
. capacity. But they differ from modem humans in that they
have elongated foramen magnum, medial pterygoid tubercle
and a flatter skull base (fig. Ii). Deem (2006) summarised
that Neandertals have no genetic (nor evolutionary)
connection to humans and that Neandertals displayed limited
genetic diversity.
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IVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
Receding forehead
Brow ridge
Large eye
"'.soexets
'I Large
--,,- 1tereotnht
Chin
receding
Retromolar a
Fig. 12: The skull and brain ofNearidertals vs. the modem human's (Deem
2006).
The third, Multi-regional Hypothesis, is similar to the "Out of
Africa" hypothesis but that H. ergaster gave rise to H. erectus,
which led to emergence of Asian humans. It also averred that H.
, Antecessor, from H. ergaster, 'gave rise to African humans;
whileH. neandertals, fromH. antecessor, gave rise to European
humans (fig. 11).
However, there is a fourth one, the Biblical Hypothesis (the
Creation Model) which asserts that all men came from Adam and
Eve (fig. 13). 1/
r~
jO~lGlM Ilf M~tt Cn.a~ttl(l.~~
All Humans
t
ADAM & EVE
',/AIIother bipedal primate species)
( are a special creation of God'
Fig. 13: The Creation Model (Deem 2006)
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According to Wallace (1864), there is however, one enquiry:
Are the various forms under which man now
exists primitive, or derived from pre-existing
forms; in other words, is man of one or many
species?
To this question we immediately obtain distinct answers
diametrically opposed to each other: one party positively
maintaining that;
Man is a species and is essentially one; that all
differences are but local and temporary
variations, produced by the different spiritual,
physical and moral conditions (THE ENVIRON-
MENT) by which he is surrounded.
the other parry maintaining with equal confidence that
Man is a genus of many species, each of which is
practically unchangeable, and has ever been as
distinct, or even more distinct, than we now
Lebold them.
In my own opinion, and by my religious leaning and available
incontrovertible scientific proofs, which I strongly believe,
the Creation Model fits the available scientific data better
than any of the evolutionary models for the Origin of Man.
The Bible describes the Creation of Man as having occurred
in the Mesopotamian Plain, near the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers (fig. 14);
Genesis 2: 10, 14: Now a river flowed out of Eden
to water the garden; and from there it divided and
became four rivers. And the name of the third
river is Tigris; it flows east of Assyria. And the
fourth river is the Euphrates.
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Fig. 14: The Mesopotamian Plain (adapted from Deem 2006).
According to the Bible, Man has been directly created by God.
All the evolutionary concepts are held up in a materialistic
matrix and are therefore logically insufficient for the
explanation ofthe origin of Man. Since "breeds" of men seem to
be perfectly fertile when crossed, it maybe saidsimply that there
is only a single human species, whose origin is from one source '-.
God.
Human Diversity (Races) and Language
It is widely known that "man begets man", whether in
homogenous or heterogeneous societies, and this is the origin of
, mixed-blood, multi-racial humans (fig. IS). This means that any
production of variations in man cannot hold.because, unless the
biologists are wholly wrong, variation arises onlyin response to
environmental diversity.
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Fig. 15: Man: Multi-racialand heterogeneous.
Many ofthe characters which are popularly regarded as
race characters seem to be merely examples of this direct
adaptive response to environmental conditions. People
whose ancestors have been living in the same geographic area
for a long time tend to show similarities in visible characteristics
such as size and shape, skin colour, and hair form, and also
invisible characteristics such asblood groups.
Human "racial" diversity is a result of people in a geographic
area inter-marrying, being exposed to a number of biological
processes, and adapting slowly to local environ-ments. These
biological processes include combining and recombining
inherited genetic material over generations. This produces
offspring and descendants who differ from their parents and
ancestors. The environment may favour certain characteristics,
producing populations that are on the average taller, or darker, or
more rugged than other populations from other geographic
areas. However, isolation and inbreeding within and between
some populations may produce differences as well. These
.natural 'processes occur in humans as well as other animals and
,are the source ofmuch studyin biology and anthropology.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
The Vice-Chancellor, Sir, in God's original command
shall we find the original reason for human diversity;
And God blessed them; and God said to them,
"Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth.. ">:
Genesis 1:28
God re-issued His command:
and as for you, be fruitful and multiply; Populate
the earth abundantly and multiply in it. Genesis
9:7
The same is true of diversities in human language. The
scattering of the world's people and the Biblical event at the
City of Babel gives credence to God's deeds on man's
language diversity (Genesis 11: 1,4-8; AMP)
1And the whole earth was of one language and of
one accent and mode of expression.
4 And they said, Come, let us build us a city and a
tower whose top reaches into the sky, and let us
make a name for ourselves, lest we be scattered
over the whole earth.
5 And the Lord came down to see the city and the
tower which the sons of men had built.
6And the Lord said, Behold, they are one people
and they have all one language; and this is only
the beginning of what they will do, and now
nothing they have imagined they can do will be
impossible for them.
7Come, let Us go down and there confound (mix
up, confuse) their language, that they may not
understand one another's speech.
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8So the Lord scattered them abroad from that
place upon the face of the whole earth, and they
gave up building the city.
Some scientific creationists, however, have a simple,
Scriptural explanation for human diversity. According to
biblical history, they said all people today are descendants of
the sons of Noah. The three children of Noah, Ham, Shem
and Japheth and their descendants moved to different parts of
the world (Genesis 4-6), where according to the scientific
creationists, normal processes producing genetic variation
produced the diversity of races and nations we see today. It
was averred that Shem founded the Hebrews; Japheth gave
rise to the other Semites, Europeans, and the people of India
(Indo-Europeans); and Ham was the father of the rest of
humanity (the "coloured" peoples, as one of the scientific
creationist writers puts it).
Below is the scientific classification of human races:
• African (groups indigenous to Africa)
• Caucasian (European populations)
• Greater Asian (Mongols, Polynesians, Micronesians)
• Amerindian (North and South American Indians,
Eskimos)
• Australoid (Australia, Papua)
Within Africa alone are over 6,000 ethno linguistic groups,
and the list is inexhaustible. Nigeria, Africa's most populous
country, is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups and
over 370 linguistic groups; with the most populous and
politically influential being: Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba
21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%, IjawlO%, Kanuri 4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv
2.5% (fig. 16;Otitie 2015).
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Fig. 16: Ethnic groups in Nigeria (adapted from Stratfor 2013).
, ,
The Vice-Chancellor, Sir, it can be concluded that naturalistic.
explanations have failed to explain the origin of modem man,
and supernatural creation is a superior model for under-standing
Man's origin. The races of man likely originated from selective
breeding and not a supernatural act, although they may have.
been the indirect result of the scattering at the Towerof Babel. In
the words of Albert Robert Einsteiri (1809~1882), "Science
without religion is lame; religion without science is blind."
The Environment
The Holy Books tell us that there are three main resources
available before Creation. These areAir,Land andWater, Added
to .these resources are God's creatures - plants, animals, birds,
fish, macroorganisms (helminths, protozoans, insects etc),
..microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, prions etc.) and
'lastly, Man. All these along with the resources form the
Environment. The very delicate and dynamic interplay
and interactions between the above, cause phenomenal
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changes which affect the survival or otherwise of the "add-
ons". The term environment describes all the physical,
biological, social and cultural factors and conditions which
influence the growth and well-being of an organism (Fadina
and Taiwo 2001). Man, through his economic and social
activities, has changed the nature of the world environment
consciously or unconsciously and each of his activities has
one effect or another on the health and wellness of all living
creatures including human beings, their domestic animals,
zoo animals, wildlife, laboratory animals and even fishes.
Others are smaller organisms like insects, helminths, pro-
tozoa, bacteria and viruses, which sometimes prefer to live on
or within the first group of creatures, either in symbiotic or
parasitic forms, and often jeopardize their very existence by
improper relationships. .
Air, when fresh, unadulterated and unpolluted, just like
blood, is a life giver and keeper. Air pollution is not only
expressed as the pouring into the atmosphere of poisonous
and obnoxious industrial, automobile and sundry gases, it is
also reflected as the depletion of the popular ozone layer and
the attendant exposure of the environment to dangerous rays
from the sun.
Land is a natural resource on which terrestrial animals
and man, amphibious and even some aquatic plants and
animals depend absolutely or partly for life. Man in his quest
for living and getting rid of his wastes, has turned this all-
important natural resource into his ultimate killer.
Water is essential for all living organisms: aerial,
terrestrial and aquatic. Water bodies serve as the ultimate sink
for all substances, natural or otherwise, from both air and
land. These wastes at high concentration adversely affect the
physico-chemical properties of water, which consequently
affect not only the biota in such water bodies, but man and
animals that turn round to drink such polluted water, mostly
as partly-treated or untreated, especially in the rural, semi-
rural and some urban environments in developing and under-
developed nations.
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My Contributions to Scholarship
The Vice-Chancellor, Sir, the next question is, how did I get
involved in this unpredictable triangular conundrum? At one
point or the other, these three (macrophages, man and the
environment) have had profound and lasting effects on my
life's history over the past 25 years within this University and
across Africa, notably Kenya. It was around 5pm on that
fateful Thursday, 18 December, 1986, a week to Christmas,
when I received a message to see my then Head of
Department and mentor, Professor B.O. Ikede. Initially, I had
trepidation that my Christmas season may witness another
lull. Another "job" for me to do, "when you're free". By the
time I got to his office, I found him smiling, as usual, but this
time, there was something I could not pick, and hoping for
the best, I greeted him. He beckoned me to sit, seeing that I
was getting fidgety. Looking straight into my eyes, he asked
"would you like to do your Master's project at ILRAD,
Nairobi? .. it will be a good experience" not waiting for me to
give an answer. Then, I knew he had already made his
decision, and my answer may not have had any impact. I
muttered YES, with a bow. And that was it. Between
February and July, 1987, I was at ILRAD (International
Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases), now ILRI
(International Livestock Research Institute), a member of
Consultative Group on Integrated Agricultural Research
(CGIAR) of which our lIT A is also a member. Being a
Member of the. Governing Board of ILRAD at that time,
Professor Ikede had proposed that ILRAD management
should engage in the training of up-and-coming African
scientists from within Africa and not Africans in Europe or
the Americas, who do not return to Africa to help develop
their countries. Professor Ikede had recommended me for a
Research Fellowship position to carry out my M.Vet.Sci.
research work at ILRAD, on a platter of GOLD.
To cut a long story short, I spent 6 months researching on
the "Role of Chancre in the Protective Immunity to
Trypanosome infection in Goats", which was supervised by
Professor Ikede and Dr. Vinand Nantulya, a renowned
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Ugandan Immunologist and then Principal Research Scientist
and Head of Lab. 4 at ILRAD. Our results showed that the
chancre is vital for the induction of comprehensive immune
recognition of the metacyclic variable antigens repertoire
deposited in the skin by infected tsetse, hence development of
protective immunity (Taiwo, Nantulya, Moloo and Ikede
1990). This was my first publication in an international
journal of repute, Journal of Immunology and Immuno-
pathology.
I returned to Nigeria to complete my Master's programme
in July, 1987. During the six months period, I was placed on a
monthly stipend of $1,200 (including free accommodation
and insurance cover), which was almost two times more than
what my mentor was earning then as a Professor at the
University of Ibadan. What a man! an Isoko from the Delta
coast of Nigeria.
As if that was not enough, by August, 1988 I was on my
way back to Nairobi for an extension of my Research
Fellowship position, on an enhanced salary, for my Ph.D.
research. The title of my research was "Role of the
Macrophage in the Pathogenesis of Anaemia during
Trypanosome Infection in N'Dama and Boran Cattle". Vice-
Chancellor, Sir, that was the beginning of my relationship
with the cell called macrophage. Shortly after I started my
research, Professor Ikede left Nigeria for greener pasture at
University of Prince Edward Island, Canada. My second
mentor and supervisor of my DVM project in 1982, Professor
V.O. Anosa took over as' my University supervisor, assisted
by Dr. Linda Logan-Henfrey, an American Veterinary
Pathologist, and Dr. Diana Williams, a British Biologist and
Head, Lab. 7 at ILRAD.
For almost four years (October, 1988 to April, 1992), I
was dining, wining, sleeping and waking up with these
groups of cells called Macrophage. Our duty was to unravel
the various roles played by this all important cell in the
course of anaemia during Trypanosoma congolense and T.
vivax infections in N'Dama and Boran cattle (fig. 17).
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The predecessors of the N'Dama cattle we used were transferred
as embryos (Jordt et aL 1986) from their Fouta Djallon Hills
origin in West Africa to ILRAD, Nairobi, Kenya. The N'Dama
cattle (Bas taurus) are known to be trypanotolerant, an
inheritable trait that is constitutive but not absolute (Murray and
Gray 1984); but may be affected by stress factors like poor
nutrition, management, pregnancy and concurrent diseases. On
the other hand, the Boran cattle (Bas indicus), an East African
Zebu, are typically trypano-susceptible (Murray et aL\1982).
1
Fig. 17:Left: Two N'Dama (Bos Taurus) cows grazing in apaddock on ILRAD
site, Kabete, Nairobi. Right: A herd of Boran (Bos indicus) cattle at the
Kapiti Plains Ranch, near Nairobi, Kenya.
During my encounters with the macrophage, I harvested
them from the blood, as peripheral blood monocytes
(PBM), the spleen and the bone marrow of trypanosome-
infected and uninfected cattle, and at a stage, buffalo. The
macrophages were cultured for varying periods ranging from
hours to days depending on the study, as monocultures (fig. 18),
in various culture media containing mixed leucocyte
culture supernatants, trypanosome lysates,
lipopolysaccharide (LPS), crude and recombinant cytokines -
human interferon-gamma (rIFN-y) and bovine tumour necrosis
factor-alpha (rTNF-a) at varying concentrations. They were
then exposed to "chromium C1Cr)-labelled red blood cells
(RBC) from infected and uninfected cattle or RBC that have
been pre-treated with bromelain (which alters the cellmembrane
sialic acid configuration and concentration). Quantitative and
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qualitative analyses of sialoglycoproteins on the RBC of
N'Dama and Boran cattle, and the African Buffalo were also
carried out.
Fig. 18: Monocultures of (left) peripheral blood monocytes and (right)
macrophages from the bone marrow of an N'Dama cow.
The Vice-Chancellor, Sir, the protocols are too many to give
details, but most ofthe processes could take as long as 18 hours
at a stretch. Blood sample collection from animals normally
started at 6am; separation of whole non-clotted blood to plasma
and mono cultures of all the cellular constituents (red blood
cells, neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and
basophils, when observed) on various days post-infection.
Splenic and bone marrow macrophages were also routinely
harvested and separated from sacrificed or dead trypanosome-
infected and uninfected animals. Exposure of macrophages to
labelled RBC for 4 and 18 hours, and measuring the amount of
radioactivity in culture supernatants and in the harvested
cultured macrophages gave the indication of both phagocytosed
and digested (lysed) RBC per culture time in the various
experimental conditions and animals. Biochemical assays of
cell cultures, immune-labelling and differential cell counting
using the fluorescein-activated cell sorter machine, SDS-PAGE
analyses of secreted or elaborated proteins, sialoglycoproteins,
using different techniques were carried out to identify RBC
phagocytosis-inducing markers followed at the required stages
of various experimental protocols. Below are some of the
highlights of our published results.
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1. Comparative in vitro destruction of RBC by macro-
phages (Taiwo and Anosa 2000)
In vitro erythrocyte phagocytosis and lysis by splenic, bone
.marrow and PBM-derived macrophages of Boran cattle
infected with T. congolense increased from 14 days post-
infection onwards and thereafter maintained at various levels
above pre-infection (fig. 19). Cultured splenic macrophages
showed the greatest RBC destruction capability, while PBM-
derived macrophages had the least. The rates of in vitro RBC
destruction were higher with the cultured PBM of the Boran
than those of the N'Dama cattle during T. congolense
infection, but similar in both groups of cattle during T. vivax
infection.
~ 25
3S ~ ~
20
30
~ 25 15
I: !.!I~ 10
10
0 0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
Doya-- Dayspoot_
...-N'o.ma ~ Boran •..•....N'Oama - Botan
Fig. 19: In vitro phagocytosis (A) and lysis (B) of red blood cells by
cultured PBM in T. congolense-infected Boran and N'Dama cattle.
There was positive correlation of the dynamics and degree
of normocytic normochromic anaemia developed by these
groups of cattle during both T. congolense and T. vivax
infections. None of the N'Dama cattle needed treatment.
Macrophages of both breeds, at different times post-infection
. or ·stimulation, were found to have phagocytosed one or more
red blood cells (fig. 20).
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Fig. 20: Cultured macrophages from a Borancow at 14 days post-To
congolense infection after 4 hours "(left) and 18 hours (right) with
phagocytosed red blood cells.
In vivo macrophage stimulatory factors, crude and acid-
dialysed mixed leucocyte culture supernatants, LPS, rTNF-a.
Also macrophages harvested from the bone marrow of T.
congolense-infected Boran cattle were found to have phago-
cytosed numerous red blood cells and lymphocytes (fig. 21) in
both breeds. These were, however, more pronounced in the
Boran cattle.
Fig. 21: Macrophages harvested from the bone marrow of a Boran cow with
numerous phagocytosed red blood cells (left) and lymphocytes (right).
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2. Differential expression of surface membrane anti-
gens by macrophages activated by recombinant
cytokines and during trypanosome infections (Taiwo,
Anosa and Oluwaniyi 2000)
The study revealed that both rBoIFN-y and rHuTNF-a caused
the enhancement of the expression of all the PBM surface
antigens studied. Recombinant BoIFN-y was more efficient in
causing the activation of PBM at low concentrations. While
the PBM of Baran cattle were more significantly activated to
express the C3bi receptor vis-a-vis the immune associated (la)
antigen than N'Dama cattle, the reverse was the case with the
PBM of N'Dama cattle which expressed more la antigens
than Baran PBM. Similar results were observed during T.
congolense infection in the two breeds of cattle (table 2 and
fig. 22). Similar but non-dramatic changes were recorded for
T. vivax infections.
Table 2: Surface Membrane Antigen Expression by PBM isolated
from T. congolense Infected Cattle
MoAb Days post·infection I
(cattle breed)
0 14 28 142 56 I
I
IL·A15 (C3bi receptor) I
N'DAMAPBM 43,2 * 2,1 (522)" 52,4 * 2,6 (608) 59,3 * 3,4 (653) 57,8 * 2,2 (721) 62,1 * 1,1 (622)
BORANPBM 41,6 * 3,4 (601) 63,6 * 1,2 (722) 72,4 * 2,8 (802) 78,1 * 1,9 (904) 82,3 * 3,9 (632)
. IL·A21 (Ia antigen)
N'DAMAPBM 48,5 * 1,5 (438) 92,1 *4,1 (625) 89,8 ± 3,8 (806) 97,2 ± 2,6 (798) 89,8 ± 2,5 (932)
BORANPBM 43,2 * 5,1 (471) 65,S * 3,8 (502) 72,4 * 1,8 (622) 80,8 * 4,8 (603) 81,2:3,1 (728)
IL·A24 I
I
N'DAMAPBM II 39,1 ± 1,4 (159) SO,3 ± 2,1 (225) 68,1 ± 2,2 (328) 71,1 ± 2,8 (355) 68,0 * 3,8 (421)BORANPBM 41,8 ± 2,2 (161) 63,2 * 1,8 (380) 69,3 ± 3,8 (422) 79,3 * 4,2 (438) 72~ * 2,7 (528)
IL·A109
N'DAMAPBM 32,8 ± 2,6 (90) 42,4 ± 2,1 (108) 52,2± 1,5 (121) 38,2 ± 2,6 (68) 43,9 ± 3,2 (124)
BORAN PBM 37,2*1,8 (75) 43,1 * 1,7 (68) 48,1 *2,2 (130) 40,1 * 3,2 (80) 45,8 * 2,9 (132)
• Mean * standard error (mean fluorescence per PBM); n = 5
IL·A24 & IL·Al09 recognize mono~ surface differentiation antigens
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14DPI 28DP1
NO 28 BH'" ND28 BH •••
FI.1 FI.2
Toprvw IL-A.15 IL-A21
Bottom row IL-A241 IL-A109
Fig. 22: Fluoresciene-activated cell sorting profile of surface antigens
expression on PBM of T. congolense-infected Boran and N'Dama
cattle.
The significantly higher expression of C3bi receptor and
correspondingly lower Ia antigen expression by the PBM of
Boran cattle, both during trypanosomosis and in vitro may be
responsible for the higher rate of erythrocyte phagocytosis,
hence the development of more severe anaemia by Boran
cattle during trypanosomosis than N'Dama. In addition, the
expression of significantly higher numbers of la antigen by
N'Dama macrophages, hence are more able to process,
present and initiate better trypanosome antigen-specific
immune response than Boran cattle during infection. These
two attributes are known genetic characteristics of
trypanotolerance in cattle.
3. Non-immune control of trypanosomosis: in vitro
oxidative burst of PMA- and trypanosome stimulated
neutrophils of Boran and N'Dama Cattle (Taiwo,
Adejinmi and Oluwaniyi 2002)
This study showed that phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) and
trypanosomes caused an enhanced in vitro oxidative burst,
hence trypanosome phagocytosis and killing activity of
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neutrophils and some eosinophils (fig. 23). Neutrophils have
been shown to play very significant roles in parasite
clearance, hence reduction of trypanosome parasitaemia. The
rates of both in vitro generation of O2- and trypanosome
phagocytosis did not differ significantly between Boran and
N'Dama breeds of cattle, even during T. congolense infection
in this study.
Fig. 23: Neutrophils (panels 1,2 and 3) and an eosinophil (panel 4) in in vitro
co-stimulation assays, showing trypanosome phagocytoses.
It was inferred that sustained and higher parasitaemia, more
pronounced neutropenia, inadequate bone marrow response and
less effective trypanosome-specific immune response, rather
than defective neutrophil trypanosome destruction, may be the
problem oftrypanosusceptible cattle breeds.
3. Quantitative and qualitative red blood cell sialo-
glycoprotein profiles in Zebu and N'Dama cattle and
buffalo (Taiwo and Ogunsanmi 2000)
Comparative assays on the concentration and types of
sialoglycoproteins (glycophonns; GP) on the red blood cell
membrane of three different cattle breeds and buffalo were
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carried out using 10 N'Dama, 14 White Fulani (West African
Zebu; WAZ), four Boran (East African Zebu; EAZ) and two
buffaloes. The red blood cells of WAZ and EAZ cattle
contained significantly lower concentrations of sialogly-
coproteins (9.85±0.6l and 9.46±1.35 ing/Iu" red blo.od cells,
respectively) than those of N'Dama cattle (Ibadan-based,
l2.54±0.37; Nairobi-based, l2.28±0.85 ing/IO'fed blood
cells) and buffalo (1O.43±1.25 mg/109 red blood cells).
Electrophoretic separation of the erythrocyte GPs revealed
that N'Dama cattle, its 75% crosses and buffalo expressed
three bands corresponding to human red blood cell GPA,
GPC and GPB, with 39, 30 and 25 kDa apparent molecular
masses, respectively (fig. 24). On the other hand, WAZ cattle
expressed GPA and GPC while EAZ cattle RBC expressed
only the GPA band (fig. 24).
Fig. 24: Electrophoretic (SDS-P AGE) separation of bovine erythrocyte
membrane glycophorins. (a) Nairobi-based N'Darna (lanes 1,2,3 and
4), buffalo cow and bull (lanes 5 and 6, respectively) and EAZ (lanes
7, 8 and 9). (b) Ibadan-based pure N'Dama (lanes 2 and 7), 75%
N'Dama x 25% WAZ crosses (lanes 1 and 10) and WAZ (lanes 3,4,
5, 6, 8 and 9).
These findings indicate that the N'Dama cattle and buffalo,
both of which are known to be trypanotolerant, have
qualitatively and quantitatively higher levels and types of
sialoglycoproteins on their red blood cell membranes. The
crosses of both WAZ and N'Dama also expressed
quantitative and qualitative sialo-glycoprotein profiles of the
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RY
N'Dama, showing that it is a heritable trait that may enhance
or serve as a marker for trypanotolerance. .
My Home Coming
The Vice-Chancellor, Sir, at this juncture, I rounded off my
Ph.D research work, and started to write up the thesis, when I
was informed by my colleagues back in Nigeria that some
vacancies had been advertised for our Department for the
position of Lecturer II, and that if I was interested, I should
put in my application. This, I promptly did, since it was the
policy of ILRAD that African Research Fellows must return
to their countries on the completion of their researches. To
cut a rather interesting and long story short, I was interviewed
in absentia and offered the appointment. I returned to Ibadan
on 05 July, 1992 and assumed duty in the Department on 02
September, 1992.
You will recall, Vice-Chancellor, Sir that my return to the
country was during the preparations for the 29 May, 1993
Elections tagged "HOPE 93", which became a "hopeless
venture", no thanks to the June 12, 1993 Election Annulment
by the General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida (rtd.)-led
Military Junta and the subsequent transition of the whole
nation of Nigeria into a "pariah state". Vice-Chancellor, Sir,
we are all witnesses to the ominously dark clouds that over-
shadowed the whole country from 1993 to 1999. The suffer-
ings at individual and national levels were unprecedented in
our national history. This was a time where and when nothing
worked. The numerous Workers Unions' Strike Actions,
including our own Academic Staff Union of Universities
(ASUU), the nationwide and international protests led by
NADECO and other interested pressure groups, public
protests, bum-fires and total breakdown of national security,
and almost all social amenities including NEPA is all history
today. Remember the popular ASUU slogan - "My Take
Home Pay, Cannot Take Me Home". There was total anarchy,
disorderliness, hunger and anger nationwide.
I came into the country when all these were going on with
bright hopes of continuing my dream studies on the
"macrophage", with which I seemed to have had a pact to
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unravel its secrets of managing the affairs of God's creatures,
maintenance of homeostasis, prevention and ameliorating the
various sicknesses and diseases that may afflict them "as
ordained by God", at least that was, and still is, the way I
perceived it.
I came back with numerous panels of monoclonal
antibodies, clones of different species of trypanosomes,
recombinant cytokines and growth factors, among several
light equipment that were to enhance my continuing
researches, having been trained and adept in many aspects of
world-class biotechnological procedures, including computer-
driven Information Technology. I was indeed very lucky to
have had such training experience.
Lo and behold, the situation in Nigeria at that time
gradually saw me lose all the reagents that I had brought from
Nairobi to incessant and prolonged power outages, insecurity
and extreme poverty. I wrote four manuscripts from my Ph.D
thesis shortly after my defence on 19 January, 1993, but was
unable to get them published until early 2000. This was
because it was difficult to have a journal of any repute outside
Nigeria to accept any research manuscript from Nigeria; Even
if they would, our National Postal System at that time made
matters worse; they dumped all mails :;itthe Airports, unsent.
Not many journals have IT-driven manuscript handling
system-at that time. We are all witnesses.
My personal and family lives took a deep plunge into
•.b. ysmal darkness, unprecedented in my existence. Life was
very hard for me and my family. We lived through a stage
where the military might at that time wanted to eject us
(Lecturers) from our residences on Campus. The first culprit
was my family; I became a single parent, and had to single-
. handedly fend for five children, four "big" boys and an
infant girl, along with a retinue of cousins, nephews and
nieces, the parents of who had in one way or the other,
assisted me in my life's journey to get to where I was. I
toyed with the idea of leaving the country for Kenya or South
Africa, where I was sure of a good job and better life. But the
idea of leaving behind my young children to their fate in
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Nigeria was very repugnant to me. I decided that I would rather
stay and struggle it out in Nigeria. Apart from hunger, insecurity
and very hostile environment, I was ingloriously "engulfed" by
the then environmental macrophage and sent into the deep
"belly" ofthe "BffiLICAL JONAH-WHALE".
Fig. 25:
phillipmartin.info
Jonah is the central character in the Book of Jonah. Commanded
by God to go to the city of Nineveh to prophesy against it:
"for their great wickedness is come up before me,,,m
Jonah instead seeks to flee from "the presence of the
Lord" by going to Jaffa and sailing to Tarshish,
which, geographically, is in the opposite direction.
A huge storm arises and the sailors, realizing that
it is no ordinary storm, cast lots and discover
that Jonah is to blame. Jonah admits this and states
that ifhe is thrown overboard, the storm will cease.
The sailors try to dump as much cargo as possible
before giving up, but feel forced to throw him
overboard, at which point the sea calms. The sailors
then offer sacrifices to God. Jonah is miraculously
saved by being swallowed by a large fish in which
he spends three days and three nights." While in the
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great fish, Jonah prays to God in his affliction and
commits to thanksgiving and to paying what he
has vowed. God commands the fish to spew
Jonah out (Jonah, Chapters 1 and 2).
This story about Jonah is also iterated in Qur'an, chapter 37
(As-Saaffat), verses 139-144.
When God saw the HEART of Jonah, He forgave him, but re-
ordered him to go back on the initial errand:
"Arise, go to Nineveh, that great city, and preach
to it what I command you." So Jonah went to the
city of Nineveh; and as he entered into it, he
called out to the people (Jonah 3:2).
We all knew what happened thereafter.
The Vice-Chancellor, Sir, I am not sure I heard any
command from God, which I refused to heed, nor did I have
any spiritual message from any prophet and refused to atone.
I wasn't any strong Christian at that time, but I was attending
church and listening to very excellent sermons by my
spiritual oversights at SPCC. What I went through at that
time was an anti-climax of my life. The details would form
the bulk of my autobiography, if I eventually decide to write
one. The summary of these are that I was ingloriously
incarcerated in police custody at the State Criminal
Investigation Department, Iyaganku, Ibadan for 13 days, and
a 6 months-long court process leading to my discharge and
acquittal, for an offence I knew nothing about. Thanks be to
God Almighty for my wife, then my girlfriend, my in-laws,
relatives, ASUU, my Union and friends whose identities
would be revealed adequately in my Acknowledgements.
The Vice-Chancellor, Sir, that period was the darkest so
far in my life history. Initially, upon being put into the cell, I
cried like I was going to die, for the first two days; then I
resigned to fate and started asking God what I had done to
warrant these undeserved punishments. During my sleep on
the third night, the police arrested one of the burglars who
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exonerated me (at a "proper identification parade"), God
spoke to me, and said " ... it is in your very best interest to be
in here, than to be outside there to be consumed ..." Then it
dawned on me that I was in a "Spiritual confinement". Since
that moment, I kept on praying, singing and giving thanks to
God, asking for forgiveness of my sins and the humility to
forgive all that have wronged me, even those who overtly or
covertly made me to be so engulfed by the "Environmental
Macrophage in Jonah's Whale". I voluntarily became the
"church leader and prayer warrior" in the cell. I admonished
my fellow inmates to among others, forgive themselves and
those who may have led them into being there in the cell, in
their own "glorified self interest" as preached on many times
by my Spiritual Oversights, Pastor and Mrs. Olubi and Sarah
Johnson.
I now believe that God "saw" my Heart and forgave and
preserved me. I even enjoyed divine help from a young police
officer at the station, who staked his life to prevent me from
being taken away for "interrogation" by another police
"detective" on the night of my arrest. I shall eternally be
grateful to God who, through this police officer, preserved me
from the brutality and extreme humiliation I could have gone
through. To this day, I have never had any cause to be
despondent and lose hope and self-esteem. I returned to the
university campus with my head raised high, though battered,
like the proud moulting cock (fig. 26), I strode tall and went
about my academic and research work as usual.
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Fig. 26: ... life continues, despite the tom clothes ...
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, I affirm that I bore and still bears no grudge
against anyone directly or indirectly connected with the incident,
because the event had helped to re-shape my life and outlook,
especially to be very aware of my environment, spiritual,
physical, social, and in research which is the theme of my next
life's story.
Man and His Environment
The Vice-Chancellor, as I had said earlier, at creation, the earth's
major resources are Air, Land and Water. Added to these are
plants, animals, insects, birds, fish and man, all which form our
Environment. The very delicate but dynamic interplay and
balance between the components in the environment affect their
survival. Man, through his activities, has changed the nature of
the world environment consciously or unconsciously and this has
had one effect or another on food security and safety. Fresh,
unadulterated and unpolluted air, just like blood, is a life giver .
and keeper. Air pollution is not only expressed as the pouring into
the atmosphere of poisonous and obnoxious industrial, auto-
mobile and sundry gases (fig. 27), it is also reflected as the
depletion of the popular ozone layer and the attendant exposure
of the environment to dangerous rays from the sun.
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Land is a natural resource on which terrestrial animals and
man, amphibious and even some aquatic plants and animals
depend absolutely or partly for life. Man in his quest for living
and getting rid of his wastes, has turned this all-important natural
resource into his ultimate killer (fig. 28).
Fig. 27: Automobile (left) and industrial gas emissions into the atmos-
phere.
Fig. 28: Typical (former) waste dump sites at a popular abattoir in Ibadan,
where animals and man "compete for living".
Water is essential for all living organisms-aerial, terrestrial
and aquatic. Water bodies serve as the ultimate sink for
all the substances (fig. 29), natural or otherwise, from
both air and land. These wastes at high concentration.
adversely affect the physico-chemical properties of water,
which consequently affect not only the biota in such water
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bodies, but man and animals that turn round to drink such
polluted water, mostly as partly-treated or untreated, especially
in the rural, semi-rural and some urban environ-ments in
developing and under-developed nations.
Fig. 29: Industrial effluent (left) and crude oil spill (right) into water bodies.
Food Safety and Security
Mr. Vice-Chancellor, Sir, in August, 2001, I attended au.
International Conference· on Food Safety and Security with the.
theme "Enhancing Food Safety and Security in Nigeria" at the
International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) sponsored
by USDAIUSAIDlFederal Government of Nigeria. Professor
Ango Abdullahi, the then Special Adviser to the President on
Food Security, in his opening address said;
... It is common knowledge that apart from the
physical quality prescriptions required for (export-
bound agricultural) commodities and food products,
there is a very high premium placed on the
physiological, chemical and microbial concerns of
these products which together constitute and
determine their safety characteristics for human
consumption ...
... It is generally agreed thatthese institutions and
their facilities are still at their rudimentary stages
of development, and a great deal still needs to be
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done to bring them to the efficient and effective
standards often found in developed agricultural
economies in the other parts of the world ...
, These statements, among others, were the catalysts that
~, spurred me to engage some of our colleagues in the Depart-
ments of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine,
. Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, Animal Science,
, ~ 'the' then Wildlife and Fisheries Management, Chemistry;, .~ "Physiology and Human Nutrition to work together on issues
. relating to food security and safety in man and animals. The
: experience is awesome and highly rewarding. Vice-
.. Chancellor, Sir, Food Security is defined as'
access by all people at all times to the food
" , required for them to lead a healthy and productive
{.
I life (Webb and von Braun 1994)
.:lts extreme opposite, Food Insecurity or Famine is
a catastrophic disruption of society as manifested
. i in a cumulative failure of food production, distri-
bution and consumption systems (Webb and von
Braun 1994)
In public health parlance, Food Safety is the
presentation to man and animals of food, which is
wholesome, balanced and health giving
Worldwide food shortages and skyrocketing prices of food
and feed items for man and animals at that period, and till
,now, in our national history made many fanners and animal
feed producers to start looking for alternative sources of feed
ingredients to replace or substitute the expensive and highly
economically competitive conventional grains such as maize,
sorghum, beans and millet, as well as other sources of animal
and plant oils to augment human and animal food and feed
resources. These efforts are often fraught with challenges of
processing and detoxification. In our efforts to play our roles
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in food- security and also to ensure safety of foods/feeds for
man and animal, we carried out animal model experiment-
ations on the evaluation of these non-conventional sources for
effectiveness of replacements with little or no toxic side
effects on the animals and byextension, man. We also carried
out toxicological and therapeutic effects of some known and
obscure plants as herbal preparations for the treatment of
common diseases and ailments, especially in man.
The following sets of experiments, which I consider as
positive efforts in "harnessing our untapped resources and
improving our environmental attributes", were carried out.
(i) Sole feeding of poultry faeces to Clarias gariepinus
accompanied by toxicity, as..shown by widespread
hepatocellular degeneration; and necrosis, renal
congestion and tubular necrosis, and weight loss
(Agbede, Ogunsanmi, Taiwo, Oso and Ogundipe
1999). This implied that poultry faeces should not
be recommended as a 100%; substitute for conven-
tional ingredient in fish, rations in commercial fish
farming.
(ii) Replacement of maize with .pffal in diets of grower
pigs did not affect the growth, serum total proteins,
creatinine and urea values, apparent digestibilites of
the ether extract, and serum cholesterol levels. We
(Adeshehinwa, Ogunsanmi, Nssien and Taiwo
1999) concluded that maize offal could be safely
and economically utilized l~ the diets of grower
pigs.
(iii) Oyelese, Taiwo, Ogunsanmi and Faturoti (1999)
demonstrated, in toxicological assays where
processed and differently processed cassava peels
were used to replace maize in fish diets, that though
it is practically impossible to completely detoxify
cassava peels, C. gariepinus fingerlings can survi ve
hydrocyanic acid levels in feed up to 180ppm and
60% maize replacement level when the peels were
first steam-autoclaved and then oven-dried. This we
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observed will drastically reduce maize requirements
in fish diets and improve profit margins.
(iv) Olukunle, Ogunsanmi, Taiwo and Samuel (2002)
reported that for optimal growth performance, best
nutrient utilization and unimpaired haematological
and plasma enzyme activities in hybrid Clarias, a
5% inclusion level of sun-dried cow blood meal can
be used as protein supplementation in the feed, thus
reducing production costs and improving yield.
(v) In separate experiments, Iyayi and Taiwo (2003),
Iyayi, Taiwo and Fagbohun (2005) and Iyayi,
Ososanya, Taiwo and Adeniji (2006) provided
ample . evidence that heat-processed Mucuna
(Mucuna utilis) and velvet beans (Mucuna pruriens)
can be used as replacements for soybean meal in the
diets of starter and finisher broilers and laying hens,
thus considerably relieving soybean for human use
and reduce production costs. -Inclusion levels of
above 6% caused reduction in the birds'
performance because of the level of anti-nutritional
factors in Mucuna.
(vi) Akinnawo, Taiwo, Ketiku and Ogunbiyi (2005)
recorded positive growth changes and minimal
organ pathology in rats given edible larvae of
Cirina forda (Westwood), known as monimoni or
ekuku in Yorubaland. We recommended its
consumption to augment protein availability and
prevent protein malnutrition in humans, and
possibly as a protein supplement in animal diets.
(vii) Olukunle, Taiwo and Adejinmi (2000) carried out a
comparati ve assessment of growth performance of
hybrid catfish fed non-conventional plant proteins
in homestead concrete tanks and found out that
these plant protein sources can be conveniently
effecti vel y used.
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(viii) Olaifa, Ajayi, Taiwo and Bello (2812) reported that
the supplementation of the feed of C. gariepinus
with the African oil bean (Pentachlethra
macrophylla Benth) seed residues caused an
enhancement of feed utilization and growth in the
fish.
(ix) Series of experiments were carried. out on
toxicological evaluation and dietary effects on
growth of rats fed oils extracted from non-
conventional oilseed sources such as Telfaria
occidentalis (Ajayi, Oderinde, Taiwo and Agbedana
2004), Garcinia mangostana (Ajayi, Oderinde,
Ogunkoya, Egunyomi and Taiwo 2007), Terminalia
catappa, Pentaclethra macrophylla and
Calophyllum inophyllum (Ajayi, Oderinde, Taiwo
and Agbedana 2008), and Monodora myristica .
(Ajayi, Ajibade and Taiwo 2013). Our results
showed that oils from T. catappa, G. mangostana
and M. myrisitica are suitable for both human
consumption and as industrial oils. The oils from C.
inophyllum, P. macrophylla and T. occidentalis are
suitable only for industrial use because of toxicities
in rats associated with their consumption, even at
5% standard inclusion levels. This was due to the
presence of high levels of unsaturated fatty acids
such as linoleic acid and oleic acid (c. inophyllum,
P. macrophylla) and erucic acid (T. occidentalis) in
these oils. For example, ingestion of C. inophyllum
and P. mangostana seed oils by rats caused severe
diffuse hepatocellular degeneration and necrosis
(fig. 30) and myocardiac degeneration, fibrosis and
presence of artherosclerotic clefts in cardiac blood
vessels (fig. 31), respectively.
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Fig. 30: Liver of rat given 5% C. inophyllum oil in normal rat feed showing diffuse
vacuolar degeneration of hepatocytes, periportal hepatic necrosis and
inflammatory cellular infiltration (arrow). H&E x450.
{
Fig. 31: Heart of rat given 5% P. macrophylla oil in normal rat feed showing
myocardiac degeneration, fibrosis and presence of artherosclerotic
clefts in a vasa vasorum (arrow) H&E; x 450.
Also the seed oil of T. occidentalis caused artherosclerotic
changes in the walls of vasa vasori and lymphatics in the heart
(fig. 32), as well as degenerative changes in the myocardium and
liver of the rats. The oil from the seed ofM myristicawas found
to be a promising edible vegetable oil.
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Fig. 32: Heart of rat given 5% T. occidentalis oil showing.
hyaline degeneration and necrosis of the myocardium.
Note thickened sclerotic and calcified wall of a vasa
vasorum (SC) and lymphatics (arrows) with cholesterol
clefts attached to the endothelium (H&E; x450).
(x) Aloe vera (L), a member of the family L.i{iq£!c(!at:.i,.s. a
. popular perennial succulent plant that is cactus-like in its
characteristics (Tyler 1993). The plant has a long history asa
multipurpose folk remedy (Reynolds and Dweck 1999), and > •
has been associated with myths, magic and medicine since
pre-biblical times (Balter 1992). It is acclaimed to cure
ailments ranging from mild fever, wounds and 'burns,
gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes, sexual problems, among
many other claims. Here in Nigeria, there is a very strong
cultural belief in herbal medicare, most often due to the
latter's economic advantage and easier reach compared to the
high cost of orthodox medicine. This is com-pounded by low
literacy rates and often epileptic and grossly inefficient
orthodox healthcare delivery system.
Since the sudden introduction and widely acclaimed
mega-therapeutic potentials of A. vera and its products (the
cure-all craze) in the mid 1990s, and the highly expensive
"processed" A. vera products, it is common to see homestead
A. vera "plantations" at every comer in most towns
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and villages (fig. 33). This has led to usually unrecommended
and uncontrolled consumption of raw A. vera leaves by the low
and mighty in the society. Conflicting reports on the therapeutic
potentials of A. vera (Schmidt and Greenspoon 1993), its
toxicity, especially when used parenterally (Brusick and Menge
1997; Balter 1992; Tyler 1994), and the fact that most advertised
A. vera products have no specific approval for use by the Food
and Drug Administration of the United States of America (FDA)
(FLP 2003; Changes International 2004) necessitated our
research on the implications of the consumption of aqueous
extract of raw Aloe vera leaves on the organs and serum
biochemistry of rats and tilapia fish.
Fig. 33: Homestead Aloe vera "plantations"; a common site in metropolitan
Ibadan in the early 2000s.
Our results (Taiwo, Olukunle, Ozor and Oyejobi 2005)
showed that fish cultured in water containing different
concentrations of A. vera exhibited erratic swimming patterns,
rapid opercular movements, skin depigmentation and died within
24-96 hours. Gross and histologic tissue lesions in the fish
include, among others, pale and shrivelled gills, stunting of gill
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filaments, necrosis of gill epithelial cells (fig. 34a), hyaline
degeneration and necrosis of gill filaments, hepato-cellular
vacuolar degeneration andnecrosis.
Changes in test rats included moderate to severe
normocytic normochromic anaemia, hypproteinaemia,
increased AST levels, and decreased cholesterol and
triglyceride levels. Gross and histologic tissue lesions included
pulmonary congestion, intestinal villous atrophy (fig. 34b),
flabbiness of the heart, hepato-megaly, degeneration (fig. 34c)
and necrosis of hepatocytes, renal glomerular and tubular
degenera-tion and necrosis (fig. 34d). The severity of these
changes increased with increasing concentrations of A. vera,
showing that A. vera is very toxic to fish and rats, and
may alsobe similarly toxic to humans.
Fig. 34: (a) GillofTilapia in 50ppm A. vera showing widespread vacuolar
degeI\eration and necrosis of gill epithelial cells; (b) severe intestinal
villous atrophy in Tilapia in 5OppmA. vera; (c) liver of rat given 150ppm
A. vera in water showing diffuse periportal and centrilobular vacuolar.
degeneration; and (d) kidney of rat given 50ppm A. vera in water
showing severe degeneration and necrosis of glomeruli and tubules
(Taiwo et al. 2005).
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RY
(xi) Also, Adeogun, Alaka, Taiwo and Fagade (2012)
reported organ pathological changes in C.
gariepinus exposed to sublethal doses of the
methanolic extract of Raphia hookeri.
(xii) Nottidge, Omobowale, Taiwo, and Omotoso (2008)
reported the histopathological changes caused by
ethanolic extract of the fruits of Garcinia kola in
dogs and warned on the implication of excessive
human consumption of bitter kola.
(xiii) We carried out experiments using different extracts
of plant materials for the amelioration and/or cure
of common conditions or diseases in animal models,
preparatory to their recommendation for use in man.
These include:
(a) Reversal of toxigenic effects of aflatoxin Bl
on cockerels by alcoholic extract of African
nutmeg, M. myristica (Oluwafemi and
Taiwo 2004).
(b) Anti-oxidant and anti-hyperglycemic active-
ties of Musa sapientum roots extracts in
alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Adewoye,
Taiwo and Olayioye 2009).
(c) Anti-plasmodium and toxicological effects
of methanolic bark extract of Chrysophyllum
albidum in albino mice (Adewoye, Salami
and Taiwo 2010).
Environmental Pollutants
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, the next in the series of my studies are
, those, one would consider as deleterious or dangerous to
animal and human life, and hence termed negative issues
regarding the use of our environment. They are concerned
with environ-mental pollution and its attendant effects on
living, health and wellness. Pollution is an undesirable change
in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air,
water and soil that may harmfully affect the life or create a
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potential health hazard of any living organism and in
particular for man (Flower 2006) and animals.
There are two basic types of environmental pollutants-
biodegradable and non-degradable. The former include
domestic sewage or municipal and industrial effluents, some
of which rapidly decompose by natural processes and
engineered systems. When allowed to pile up in very high
concentrations in the environment, especially in inland water
bodies, the issue of safety is overshadowed by the need for
such waters by man and his animals, bio-accumulation in the
food chain with disastrous health and productivity
consequences. The non-degradable pollutants are plastic cans
and bottles, polythene bags, plastic containers and wares,
aluminium cans, mercurial salts, Cu, Cd, Pb, Co, Zn, long-
chain phenolic chemicals, DDT etc. These types of pollutants
do not degrade or degrade only very slowly in the natural
environment. They do not only accumulate in the
environment, they have been shown to be "biologically
magnified" as they move in biogeochemical cycles along
food chains (Kumar 1980) causing considerable morbidity
and mortality. Rapid world population increase coupled with
global and local technological advances in agricultural and
industrial practices, and misuse- or abuse of these practices
have brought about the introduction of various substances
into the aerial, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, leading to
the alteration of the course of evolution and shift in the
"balance of nature".
Environmental pollutants tend to simplify the community
structure through the elimination of the more sensitive plant
and animal species, cause changes in inter-species relation-
ships within the community, and alter nutrient cycles and
subsequently affect the composition of the community. The
aerial, terrestrial and aquatic resources, placed at the disposal
of man, are very abundant; they vary in composition and are
renewable. Irresponsible usage, overuse or neglect in some
cases, of this resilient but fragile ecosystem (usually by man),
cause varying degrees of ecological disasters, which
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adversely affect man and his livestock (including aquatic) both
in terms of availability and quality of life. For instance, lack of
adequate food resource for man and his animals will affect their
productivity, while unwholesome and unsafe food will not only
affect productivity, it will lead to morbidity and mortality.
The damages that air pollution cause to man and his
livestock are very enormous. Dangerous fumes and effluents
from industries, automobile and sundry sources can cause
asphyxiation and death or severe irritation of the upper
respiratory system, thereby initiating or complicating innocuous
respiratory or other systemic diseases in man and livestock.
Occurrences of "acid rains" have been reported in various parts
of Nigeria within the last 10-25 years. Vice-Chancellor, Sir, on
Thursday, 12 July 2001, a mortality of75% was reported in an
experimental homestead 1,000 Clarias and Heterobranchus
breeding stock within 4-6 hours after a moderately heavy rain in
an environment where coal tar had been used for sealing leaking
roofs of buildings within our campus. Our findings revealed
acute anoxia as a result of gill filament necrosis and denudation
(fig. 35), due to CO poisoning in the aquaria:
Fig. 35: Necrosis and denudation of gill filaments and villi of Clarias X
Heterobranchus breedstock fish exposed to CO poisoning (Taiwo and
Olukunle, unpublished finding).
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Another example is the dislocation of a community in
Delta State, Nigeria by "salt rain" (Anchor Newspaper, 12
July 2001: page 3) from aerial pollution with mist from a salt
manufacturing company in the locality. Many people and
livestock in the community were reported sick, and some
died. Many of such incidences have been reported in the
press, but many remain unknown or simply not reported.
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, when I was on sabbatical and
accumulated leaves at the Department of Veterinary
Pathology, University of Maiduguri. in 200512006 and
200612007 sessions, respectively, the first thing that shocked
me was the presence of swarms of houseflies (fig. 36),
virtually everywhere, in human and animal habitations, and
notably and menacingly, in fish and meat markets. In local
markets, you would virtually hand-scoop the flies before you
can even see the fish or meat you want to buy. I resorted to
buying my fish and meat from meat shops, where the
population of these flies was being controlled by almost 24
hour use of smouldering "mosquito coils" and commercial
insecticidal sprays.
I later observed that even after two washes, I could still
smell the coil smoke in my meat/fish. Worried by the
implication of the continuous exposure to pyrethroids (d-
Allethrin, Cypermethrin and d-Tetramethrin), and the binding
materials and formaldehyde, in just one coil, as reported by
Liu et al. (2003), to be equivalent to burning 51 cigarettes,
Myself and my postgraduate students (Taiwo, Nwagbara,
Suleiman, Angbashim and Zarma 2008) designed a series of
.experiments wherein we exposed adult Wistar rats to graded
.doses of aerosolized insecticidal spray and fumes from
mosquito coils for 15, 30, 45 and 60 seconds in two divided
doses daily for 18 days. Our results revealed varying degrees
of degenerative and necrotic lesions in the intestines, liver,
heart, kidney, lung and brain due to blood vascular damage
and multiple thrombosis of blood vessels (figs. 37, 38, 39
and 40).
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?"
I
Fig. 36: Swarms of nauseating houseflies on the wall (left) and food (a
chapattimeal) of a friend inMaiduguri.
These findings revealed the implications of the consistent
and uncontrolled use of pyrethroids-containing insecticides on
farm and market produce and the public health implication of
same. Miller (2004), reported that the environmental impact of
is greater than what is intended by those who use them and that
over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a
destination other than their target species, which include non-
target species, air, water, bottom sediments and food.
Fig. 37: Liver of albino rat exposed to 4.2Omg/kg BW of dallethrin in
mosquito coil fumes for 12 days showing severe widespread vacuolar
degeneration andnecrosis ofhepatocytes (H&E; x450).
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Fig. 38: The heart of albino rat exposed to 2.4Omglkg BW of pyrethroids in
aerosolized insecticidal spray for 12 days showing vacuolar and hyaline
degeneration of myocardiac fibres, ononuclear cell infiltra-tion,
vasculitis and thrombosis of an artery (TA) (H&E;x450).
Fig. 39: Lung of albino rat exposed to 2.00mglkg BW of pyrethroids from
aerosolized insecticidal spray for 9 days showing moderate thicken-ing
ofinteralveolar septa and multiple thrombosis of blood vessels (arrows)
(H&E; x450).
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MA
>
Fig. 40: Cerebrum of albino rat exposed to 2.8mg/kg of pyrethroids from
aerosolized insecticidal spray for 12 days showing fibrinoid degeneration
and thrombosis of a meningeal arteriole (MA), moderate neuronal
degeneration, neuronophagia and mild spongiosis (H & E; x450).
Vice-Chancellor Sir, in Nigeria, the direct and indirect abuse
or overuse of the land resource and inefficient agricultural
policies are adverselyaffecting the quantity and quality of food
supply to man and his animals. The negative environmental
impact of improper dumping of wastes on man and livestock
production systems is very enormous. Very poor harvesting,
, inadequate storage and processing facilities have caused serious
food shortages and. huge economic losses in the agricultural
industry. Most of the abattoirs and meat markets in the country
are not only badly managed, animals are slaughtered and
transported and sold for human consumption in the most
unhygienic way possible (fig. 41). This has led to the sale of
contaminated meat and meat products to unsuspecting public,
with very high risks of zoonotic transmission of tuberculosis
(Cadmus 2001) and other diseases.
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Fig. 41: Unhygienic ways of transportation of slaughtered meat.
Indiscriminate dumping and bad management of refuse,
human and industrial wastes have serious environmental impact
on livestock production systems which cannot be easily or
justifiably quantified. Ikem (1996) found high levels of chemical
oxygen demand, dissolved and suspended solids, ammonia, Pb,
Fe, Ni, Cr, Mn, Cd and pH, and very high coliform counts in soils,
streams, wells and boreholes around waste dump sites in two
cities - Ibadan (Orita Aperin and Ring Road) and Lagos
(Oworonsoki). These water bodies are major sources of drinking
water to inhabitants (including animals) in those areas.
Fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides have been generally
abused in our agricultural systems to the effect that soil quality
has been compromised. Chemical constituents of many of these
fertilizers and herbicides have been reported to be bio-
accumulated in plants and farm produce, and have caused
considerable morbidity and mortality in animals, including fish
as reported in our studies highlighted below:
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(a) the effects of single and repetitive oral administra-
tion of common pesticides and alcohol on rabbits
(Fadina, Taiwo and Ogunsanmi 1999).
(b) Toxicity of gamma-benzene hexachloride (y-BHC) to
Oreochromis niloticus (Pisces: Cichlidae) (Fadina,
Taiwo, Ogunsanmi and Agbede 2000).
(c) Comparative effects of oral administration of
Karate(R) and nicotine on rabbits and tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus). (Taiwo, Fadina, Agbede,
Faturoti and Ogunsanmi 2000).
Also improper dumping or handling and the consumption of
chemically preserved/stored foods (mostly grains) serve as
poisonings for both animals and man. A popular example is
the Indomie Noodle (De-United Foods Industries Ltd,
Nigeria) saga which occurred between 12 and 15 May, 2004,
when sporadic cases of gastroenteritis and deaths were
reported from human consumption of improperly treated
chemically-preserved coin for the production of the noodles.
This led to the temporary closure of their factories by
NAFDAC.
Heavy fertilization with nitrogenous compounds and the
use of certain herbicides have been reported to markedly
increase nitrite and nitrate contents of plants, and these have
been shown to cause varying degrees of tissue hypoxia, and
may lead to cardiovascular and renal disorders and death in
relatively high concentrations. Unguarded importation and
use of N2-based fertilizers and herbicides for agricultural
purposes have revealed that farm produce from such practice,
contain bio-accumulated residues of chemicals that can be
potentially dangerous to consumers (both man and animals).
Oil prospecting and extraction have caused livestock, fish
and other marine life genocide due to pollution by oil
spillages and shock wave destruction from dynamites and
explosive charges used in seismic activities (Ibeakuzie and
Bereiweriso 1993). Many hectares of coastal lands and
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polluted areas have suffered severe erosion, oil sludge
encroachment and colossal loss of flora and fauna. The loss
of aquatic resources, due to mortalities and horizontal
transmission of pollutants to man, and the economic and
public health implication are just imaginable but very huge.
Olarinmoye et al. (2009), reported among others, severe
hepatic pathologies in the brackish water catfish
(Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus) from contaminated locations
along the Lagos, Epe and Lekki lagoons in Lagos State.
Producti ve fishing and potable water has continued to be an
enigma to human and animal populace in areas severely
polluted by crude oil and oil effluents. As a result of these
hardships, there have been deadly uprisings by restive youths,
economic sabotage, violent, often fatal, political unrests,
assassinations and threats of secession by the oil-rich, Niger
Delta communities in Nigeria.
Environmental Lead Poisoning
Vice-Chancellor Sir, I will not finish this lecture without
talking about a very serious and emerging "environmental
zoonosis", which is poisoning by lead and other heavy metal
wastes, in our environment. Lead is a naturally occurring
toxic metal found in the Earth's crust. Its widespread use has
resulted in extensive environmental contamination, human
(and animal) exposure and significant public health problems
in many parts of the world (Anetor et al. 2008; Human Rights
.Watch 2011). Important sources of environmental lead
contamination include mining, smelting, manufacturing and
recycling activities, and, in some countries, the continued use
of leaded paint and leaded gasoline. Nigeria is one of the
countries that use heavily leaded petroleum products. More
than three quarters of global lead consumption is in the
manufacture of lead-acid batteries for motor vehicles. Lead is
also used in many other products, like pigments, paints,
solder, stained glass, crystal vessels, ammunition, ceramic
glazes, jewellery, toys and in some cosmetics and traditional
medicines. Drinking water delivered through lead pipes or
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pipes joined with lead solder may contain lead. Much of the
lead in global commerce is now obtained from recycling
(WHO 2014).
Young children are particularly vulnerable to the toxic
effects of lead (Anetor et.al. 200~). and can suffer profound
and permanent adverse health effects, particularly the
development of the brain and nervous system. Lead also
causes long-term harm in adults, including increased risk of
high blood pressure and kidney damage. Exposure of
pregnant women to high levels of lead can cause miscarriage,
stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight, as well as
minor malformations.
Sources and Routes of Exposure
People can become exposed to lead through occupational and
environmental sources. This mainly results from:
• inhalation of lead particles generated by burning
materials containing lead, e.g. during illegal mining,
smelting, informal recycling, stripping leaded paint
and using leaded gasoline; and
• ingestion of lead-contaminated dust, water (from
leaded pipes and contaminated water bodies), food
(from lead-glazed or lead-soldered containers).
The use of some traditional cosmetics and medicines, such as
"eye-glazer" dust (known as Tiroo in Yorubaland) can also
1..:<;;:1itn lead exposure. Young children are particularly
vulnerable because they absorb 4-5 times as much ingested
lead as adults from a given source. Moreover, children's
innate curiosity and their age-related "hand-to-mouth
behaviour" result in their mouthing and swallowing lead-
containing or lead-coated objects, such as contaminated soil
or dust and flakes of decaying lead-containing paint. This
. route of exposure is magnified in children with pica, who
may, for example pick away at, and eat, leaded paint from
walls, door frames and furniture. The same scenario occurs
when animals, especially cattle and goats, gnaw painted walls
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or objects. Exposure to lead-contaminated soil and dust
resulting from battery recycling and mining has caused mass
lead poisoning and multiple deaths in young children in
Senegal and Nigeria.
Lead Poisoning in Zamfara State, Nigeria
Zamfara is a mineral-rich state, with significant deposits of
gold. The lead poisoning epidemic resulting from small scale,
artisanal gold mining in Zamfara State in 2010 that led to the
death of about 400 people, mostly children below five years
of age, is one of the worst cases of heavy metal poisoning in
Nigeria (CDC 2010). Gold mining in these areas began in the
early 1990s, but prior investigation in some villages showed
that most families did not begin gold ore processing until
2009-2010. In May, 2010, the Federal Ministry of Health
assembled a multidisciplinary team consisting of represent-
atives from the Nigeria Field Epidemiology and Laboratory
Training Programme (NFELTP), Zamfara State Ministry of
Health and the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention to
investigate and unravel the cause of high infant mortality
during the Expanded Polio Vaccination Programme the
previous year. It was later found that lead poisoning was the
cause of these mortalities. The Blacksmith Institute, an
international not-for-profit organization, founded in 1999 and
dedicated to solving life-threatening pollution in the
developing world was invited by the Nigerian Government to
assist in the removal of toxic lead.
In the affected areas miners crush and grind ore to extract
gold, and in the process release dust that is highly con-
taminated with lead. Children in affected areas are exposed to
this dust when working or playing in the processing site
(fig. 42), or when their relatives return home covered with
dust on their clothes and hands, and when the processing
occurs in their home. Children are also exposed to this highly
toxic lead in contaminated water and food sources (fig. 42).
Their animals are.also not spared (fig. 42).
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Fig. 42: Top left, A young boy sits on a stack of ore sacks in the mining
processmg site in Bagega village; Top right, children swimming on
contaminated pond in the area; Bottom left, A woman grinds grain in a
mortar and pestle while her child plays; Bottom right, a child takes a
sheep to this highly contaminated pond to water and wash,
International partners, in cooperation with the Zamfara State
Government, treated more than 1,500 children and cleaned up
seven villages contaminated with lead. But there are thousands of
children who reportedly still need treatment and thousands more
who continue to be at risk for acute lead poisoning because their
villages remain contaminated (WHO 20 1.0). In Bagega, the largest
and most contaminated village, environmental remediation and
the implementation of safer mining practices to prevent
recontamination were urgently needed and comprehensive
treatment had to be provided for children. The Zamfara State
government had started remediation in Bagega, but it reportedly
lacks the resources necessary for an urgent comprehensive
response. So the poisoning continues, not only there, but in
hundreds or thousands of such illegal mining orprocessing sites
aU over Nigerill. A very recent example is at the Rafi Local
Government Area of Niger State where 28 children and many
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animals (cow, goats, chicken) were reported dead due to lead
poisoning as a result of artisanal gold mining in the area
(Daily Independence, 14 May, 2015, pp. 1 and 4; fig. 43).
Fig: 43: Excerpt from Daily Independence of 14 May, 2015.
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, while the remediation efforts were
on for humans in the affected areas by our government and
the volunteer international community, little or nothing was
being done to find out the situation affecting" the animal
population in the areas, more so Zamfara State is not only a
site of massive livestock production in this country, it is a .'
livestock traffic route for animals trekked from Niger
Republic and Chad down south to supply livestock for human
consumption. Till date, I am not aware of any effort, by
government and its agencies, State or Federal, to measure
lead levels in animals and animal by-products. such as the
blood, meat, milk and milk products, and agricultural produce
"exported" to other parts of Nigeria from the lead polluted
areas of Zamfara State. That was what led my team to
proceed to Bagega, Zamfara State, under very difficult and
risky situations, to find out and evaluate the impact of lead
poisoning and associated pathologies in one of our patients,
the goat.
Our Zamfara Experience "
We randomly sampled 282 naturally-exposed goats of both
sexes, and 60 unexposed goats purchased from Tsafe, a non-
gold mining village in Zamfara State. We also carried out
laboratory investigations in 24 experimentally-exposed goats
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given graded oral doses of lead, cadmium and lead+cadmium
between 2010 and 2013. Six unexposed goats served as controls
for the laboratory studies. Our results showed that heavy metal
levels in blood and tissues of naturally exposed goats in Bagega
were associated with hepatic, renal and brain injuries as a result
of oxidative stress-induced tissue degeneration and necrosis (fig.
44). The results from the laboratory experiments were similar
and the organ damage was dose-dependent and more severe with
lead and lead+cadmium administration. We then concluded that
high lead levels in the tissues of exposed livestock pose a very
serious public health hazard to meat consumers. Some of these
results have been published in the Ph.D. thesis of my student, Dr.
Afusat J. Jubril which was successfully defended last month, and
in some International Conference Proceedings in Ibadan, Borin
and South Africa.
Fig. 44: Widespread hepatocellular vacuolar degeneration and necrosis
(upper left); renal tubular and glomerular degeneration and necrosis
(upper right); brain (cerebellum) with Purkinje cell degeneration and
chromatolysis (lower left), and marked neuronal cell necrosis and
spongiosis in the mid-brain (lower right) of goats exposed to lead
pollution.
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Vice-Chancellor, Sir, our results have confirmed previous
reports that lead has serious consequences on the health and
wellness of animals and man. At high levels of exposure, lead
attacks the brain and central nervous system to cause coma,
convulsions and even death. Children who survive severe
lead poisoning may be left with mental retardation and
behavioural disruption. At lower levels of exposure that cause
no obvious symptoms, and that previously were considered
safe, lead is now known to produce a spectrum of injury
across multiple body systems. In particular lead affects
children's brain development resulting in reduced intelligence
quotient (IQ), behavioural changes such as shortening of
attention span and increased antisocial behaviour, and
reduced educational attainment. Lead exposure also causes
anaemia, hypertension, renal impairment, immunotoxicity
and toxicity to the reproductive organs. The neurological and
behavioural effects of lead are believed to be irreversible
(WHO 2014).
There is no known safe blood lead concentration (WHO
2015), but it is known that as lead exposure increases, the
range and severity of symptoms and effects also increases.
Even blood lead concentrations as low as 5 j.tgldl, once
thought to be a "safe level", may result in decreased
intelligence in children, behavioural difficulties and learning
problems (WHO 2014). It is also a known fact that
continuous consumption of lead-contaminated food and
.water, even at low doses, leads to high levels of blood and
tissue lead levels with attendant sequelae of health and
wellness implications in man and animals.
The "Macrophage" in Man
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, from the fore-going discussions on my
lecture titled, "Macrophages, Man and the Environment: My
Life's Story", one or two things have been espoused; the
Macrophage, like Man has been ordained and probably
commanded by Almighty God to assume a divine role of
controlling body 'homeostasis, disease prevention, mitigation
and immune control in the body systems of living creatures,
great and small. They, like Man, are also homogenously
l
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heterogeneous and have specifically different nomenclatures,
forms and functions in different tissues and organs in the
body depending on the vagaries of their micro- and at times
macro-environments. Like Man, they can decide to "do good"
and uplift and protect their "host". They are also known to
"do bad" by aiding invaders to adversely affect the health and
wellness of their "host". Man was unequivocally given charge
of the environment where God puts him. He was even given
the duty to give names to all living things (Gen. 2: 19, 20).
What an awesome duty! However, as we now know, Man is
the ultimate destroyer of his environment, judging by the
way he treats, uses, abuses and over-uses the environment's
resources.
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, would you believe me if I say that
we are all Macrophages of some sort? I know you would be
convinced that we all are. Let us ponder on the following:
(i) Is it not the same man (and woman) that gives birth
to, nurture, gives love to and be ready to die for
his/her offspring(s) that will turn round to harm,
rape, or kill the same, at the slightest change in
his/her environment?
(ii) Is it not the same man (and woman), who must
retire from civil/public/private employment one
day, but kept in charge (an enviable environment)
of servicing Pensions/Gratuity Funds for retired
workers, that will turn around to inordinately
embezzle and plunder funds meant to take care of
his older colleagues who have retired from service,
some have even died while trying hard to collect
their pension and gratuity, knowing fully well that
his/her turn is fast approaching?
(iii) Is it not man (and woman) who should know the
value of and sacredness of life and living, that will
turn round to kill and maim other human beings,
for no just reason than petty issues like religion,
ethnicity, political and economic reasons (various
environments)?
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(iv) Is it not man (and woman) as an elected leader, put
in charge of the welfare of its citizens, at any level
of governance (environment) that turns round to
impoverish, punish, misrule and glut on the
commonwealth of the country or community?
(v) Is it not man (and woman) appointed as a Judge (a
favourable environment), saddled with dispensation
of justice with fairness and firmness, who turns
around to collude with the wrong party to pervert
justice ,land exonerate the guilty and punish the
guiltless?
(vi) Is it not man (and woman) who was "ordained" a
PriestlReverendlPastorlBishoplImamlChief Priest,
or in many other titles, who was "appointed" as a
shepherd to cater for the spiritual and other needs of
God's Sheep, turning around to become the devil's
tool and devour the same "sheep" and lead them
astray?
(vii) Is it not man (and woman), employed as a security
agent, to guard and protect citizens or his/her
employer that will turn around and invite or aid
intruders to rob and kill his employer, at the
slightest opportunity (environment)?
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, the situations are many and varied and
we can go on and on to list hundreds and thousands of Man's
Inhumanity to Man, not to. talk of his compatriots, older than
him by Creation, on Earth-the plants, animals and all other
resources (air, land and water) meant to make life and living
very good and secure for him until God says it is enough.
Vice-Chancellor, Sir. I think that in any envrronment we find
ourselves, let us endeavour to do good, unreservedly to
ourselves and others within our environment lest we become
the sharp knife that destroys its sheath (our environment).
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Summary
Vice-Chancellor, Sir, I have been able to tell you and this
august audience a little about my life history, academics,
research, spiritual and temporal. I have been able to explain
that the Macrophages and Man have been divinely ordained
by God to take very good care of the environments where
they have found themselves by divine placement. Considering
the enormity of their responsibilities, the two-some have
fared quite well in these tasks, securing good and healthy
living, within the various environments, but we know that
they also have run short of expectations in the performance of
these tasks and have involved themselves in, in some cases,
self destruction.
I have been able to showcase some of my research efforts
aimed at ensuring food security and safety in this nation, and
elsewhere, by our various studies into searching for alternate
sources of foods and feed ingredients, ensuring their safety
levels for both human and animal consumption, and for
industrial uses. I and my various colleagues have also been
able to research into and have highlighted some environ-
mental toxicological issues affecting the health and wellness
of man and animals in our environment, especially on use and
abuse of pesticides and pyrethroids-containing insecticidal
sprays and coils, and the effect of the Zamfara environmental
lead pollution and its effects on our animals and possible
effect on man. It is to be noted, Vice-Chancellor, Sir that Man
accounts for more that 95% of all the causes of environmental
pollution world-wide.
Man should note that he did not create his environment,
and he did not choose wherever he found himself on Earth.
He did not even choose whether to come as a plant, an animal
or man. God did all that. Though man has been given the
ominous right. by God, to modify his environment to suit
some of his selfish requirements, I believe that God did net
ordain man to destroy His creations. Man invents and
discovers technology as God's sovereign gift; technology did
not invent man. However, by the use of appropriate policies,
crude or refined and purposeful, man has tremendous impact
on his environment. Man can be likened to a parasite whose
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success lies in his judicious and careful handling of his host -
his environment. A successful parasite would not kill his host,
or else it would also die. Since man has no other Planet to run
to yet, the continued survival of man and his animals will
depend on his ability to maintain a balanced ecosystem and
sustainable resources to the benefit of both present and future
generations.
Recommendations
The Role of Government and Policy Makers
Good and effective policies on technological advancement
should be rekindled, especially in the agricultural sectqr to
improve the handling of the little food we produce" for
consumption. Government, at all levels, should as a matter of
urgency, review its Agricultural, Environmental Laws and
Protection Policies and Strategies in the following areas:
• Revival of government input in agricultural storage
and preservation systems by ,restructuring and
strengthening its agencies involved in food storage and
preservation; encourage private entrepreneurs who
wish to gointo food business, especially small-scale
industries, acquire appropriate technologies, assist
them with soft loans and easy tariff opportunities; and
improve on the railway system of farm produce
haulage to reduce waste due to breakdowns or
accidents of haulage vehicles on our roads.
• A general overhaul of our Environmental Protection
Policies and Technologies regarding oil exploration
and spillage, air and. water pollution by industrial
wastes, urban waste disposal and management; and
creation and enforcement of. use of waste re-cycling
plants at State and Local Government levels. This can
be achieved by appropriate legislation and their
enforcement. Government should strengthen our law
enforcement agencies and judicial processes to enforce
compliance with these laws so as to bring more sanity.
• Encourage the use of processed manure, human and
such other wastes, rather than chemical fertilizers, all
the time by farmers. Enough is enough of wasteful
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spending of billions of Naira on further establishment
and maintenance of Chemical Fertilizer Plants all over
the country, which seem to be the order of the day.
• Education for all and sundry, especially for our youths,
in community and personal hygiene. This should be
entrenched in curricula of primary, secondary, tertiary
and even vocational education in the country.
• Governments should encourage and adequately fund
relevant tertiary biomedical and allied research
institutes to carry out biodiversity studies and
inventory of plant and livestock resources; setting up
of gene banks, and genetic improvement of our plant
and livestock species so as to keep the "keepables", for
tomorrow and posterity.
The Role of the Individual
Individual families should use locally available old or new
technologies to preserve and store food items such as yam,
maize, etc and not engage in unproductive consumption of
food. The individual should have a total change of attitude
towards his/her environment. We are going to be held
accountable for how we use or misuse our environment. That
our total essence and survival depends on our environment is
an over-statement. Every individual, high or low in the
society, is guilty of his/her contribution to the present stage of
our environment. It is all over there on our streets, air, water
bodies; everywhere for us to see (fig. 45). As corrective
measures, individuals should:
• Cultivate personal hygienic habits. Do not throw refuse
or wastes.just anywhere.
• Landlords, motorists (including private and· com-
mercial taxilbus drivers) should provide adequate
refuse disposal bins near within or near their houses
and inside vehicles.
• Disciplined use of anything is imperative. Excess of
everything is bad. Do not abuse or overuse anything.
Excessive use of the common insecticidal sprays,
rodenticides, herbicides and so on is dangerous.
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Fig. 45: Refuse dumps along our streets.
Acknowledgements
If I had stood tall today, and have been seen or heard to have
been inaugurated as a Professor of Veterinary Pathology, with a
leaning to Toxicological and Environmental Pathology at this
lecture today, it is because I have stood on the shoulders of
"Giants" who individually and collectively have supported me
along my life's journey. They are too numerous to mention, but
I shall endeavour to list and briefly state their roles.
• My parents, Late Pa Michael Oladunni Taiwo (of Ajagunna
Clan, Ojowo) and Late Madam Sabainah Adenihun Taiwo
(nee Odubanjo, of Giwa .Samosangudu Clan, Atikori),
who, despite not being so educated and. financially
handicapped, did everything possible for me and
my siblings to acquire good education. I am also
eternally grateful to my maternal uncle, Late Oba Otubu
Odubanjo, .Keegbo I Atikori, Ijebu Igbo, who assisted
my mother with my Secondary School Education at Molusi
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College, Ijebu Igbo, and later single-handedly sponsored
me through the early years of my under-graduate studies
at the great University of Ibadan, Ibadan before I secured
some scholarships. May God Almighty continue to rest
their gentle souls in perfect peace. Amen.
• My Teachers from Primary and Secondary Schools,
notably Late Olatunde Balogun, the first indigenous
Principal of Molusi College (1966-1971) and Tertiary
education at the University of Ibadan, even until this very
moment.
• I am always appreciative and indebted to my academic
mentors, Professors Basil Orioghae Ikede and Victor
Onwubalili Anosa, on whose shoulders I was carried and
stayed to get unfettered sight of and tutelage in the
scientific and research world of Veterinary Pathology.
• I am very grateful to my other teachers in the Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, especially
Professors 0.0. Oduye, D.F. Adene, O.B. Kasali, O.A.
Akinboade, R.O. Arowolo, R.A. Joshua and A.I.
Adetosoye. Same accolades I give to Late Professors G.O.
Esuruoso, M. Ola Ojo and 0.0. Dipeolu for the
deposition of knowledge, wisdom and sense of hard work
and excellence in me during my studentship in UI. In fact,
till date, I am still enjoying being under their tutelage and
love.
• I appreciate all my paternal and maternal siblings,
Oluremi, Anike, Olufemi, Oladele, Aduke and Oladiran
(RIP), and their families with whom I have enjoyed
unequalled fraternal relationship that knows no boundary
in love, peace and togetherness. I couldn't have prayed
for a better family. I also appreciate my retinue of
cousins, nephews and nieces with whom we shared
tremendous moments in times of want, survival and
plenty.
• My In-laws, Pa and Mama Ojeleke Aboyade, my wife's
siblings, and the entire Aboyade Family of Awe. I knew
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, I
and got myself into the family, by Divine Providence,
during my life's "dark moments". Despite the ominous
cloud over me at those periods, they believed in me and
God used them to present to me on a platter of Gold, a
Helpmate, Mother and Confidant, well trained and
packaged for me, when I needed such a help to rebuild my
life.
• I thank all members of Staff of the Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, for your understanding and cooperation during
the periods when I served you as Sub-Dean (Under-
graduate and Postgraduate) and Dean, and when I
represented you as the Sub-Dean of the Postgraduate
School, University of Ibadan.
• I sincerely appreciate and thank all Members of Staff,
Department of Veterinary Pathology, within whom I have
lived in peace and harmony, fettered and blossomed all
these years, and now as the Head of Department. I thank
you for being part of my life. I would not have had a
better department to work in this University.
• I thank and appreciate the Friends of my Youth, Molusi
College Old Students' Association (MOCOSA), 1966/70
Set (ONLY THE BEST), with whom I have been together
for almost 50 years!!, though some of us have passed on
(may their souls rest in Perfect Peace, Amen). I recognize
and thank you all publicly for your trust in me and all
your assistance during my "dark moments". Specifically I
thank Engr. Wasiu Olokunola, Alhaji Rasheed Asekun,
Rotimi Abdul, and late Pastor Leke Aikomo for their
unparalled encouragement and immense help during those
periods.
• I thank and appreciate all my students, undergraduate,
Master and Ph.D., who toiled with me during most of the
researches I mentioned in this lecture, and many others
not mentioned. For recognition, I single out the following:
Dr. O.A. Ogunsanmi, my first Ph.D student, who I co-
supervised with late Dr. O. Amubode of the then
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Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Management, Dr.
Augusta C. Nsonwu-Anyanwu (Ph.D), who I co-
supervised with Dr. Mabel A Charles-Davies,
Department of Chemical Pathology, Dr. B.O. Akanbi
(Ph.D), Dr. Afusat Jagun Jubril (Ph.D); Masters'
graduates: late Dr. J.O. Oluwaniyi (may his soul rest in
perfect peace), Dr. M.O. Olaniyi, Dr. AL. Ajayi and Dr.
Taiwo O. Adebisi, Dr. Phoebe Okusanya and Dr. W.
Anike. I appreciate your cooperation and support in all
these years as you encouraged and contributed in no small
measure to the successes recorded in this lecture.
• I express my heart-felt appreciation and thanks to all my
research colleagues, without whom I would not have
made such a progress and success in my research life.
They are: Professor S.A. Agbede and Dr. O.A. Adedeji,
Departtment of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive
Medicine, Dr. Olubunmi O. Fadina, Department of Crop
Protection and Environmental Biology, Professor E.O.
Faturoti, Professor B.O. Omitoyin, Dr. Oyinkansola
Olukunle and Dr. A.O. Oyelese, Department of
Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, Dr. Elsie O.
Adewoye, Department of Physiology, Professor E.A
Iyayi, Department of Animal Science, Professor R.O.
Oderinde and Dr. Ibironke O. Ajayi, Department of
Chemistry, Professor E.O. Agbedana, Department of
Chemical Pathology, Professor AO. Ketiku and Dr.
Olufunmilayo O. Akinnawo, Department of Food
Nutrition, and Professor J.O. Ogunbiyi, Department of
Pathology, College of Medicine. I thank you all along
with your numerous research students with whom most of
the studies were carried out.
• I most sincerely thank and appreciate our union,
Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), both at
National and especially our local Ibadan branch for their
sacrifices at making sure that we academic staff
nationwide and all other University staff receive wages
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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
that at least, can "take us home" and make us feel like
human beings who are contributing in no small measure
to the economic and social development of this country. I
salute our local ASUU, now and especially during the
1996/1997 session for their unflinching support to my
family and I during my trying moments. My union trusted
stayed with me even in the courts and ensured that no
academic staff was ever so treated like I was by the
Security Unit of this University at that time.
• I also want to specifically thank all past and present
Chairmen of the Council Committees on Security, namely
since 1998, Professor E.A. Falaye, Professor B.O.
Fagbemi, and my dear friend and colleague, Dr. Gani
Adeniran for the total facelift and effectiveness given to
our Security Unit and security issues on Campus, even
though more still needs to be done to. achieve our desires.
May God bless you all. Amen
• I thank all my other numerous friends and colleagues both
within the University and outside. I thank you for always
being there for me.
• My wonderful children, Olusegun (Jnr.), Oluwabunmi,
Ayoola, Oluwasola, ModupeOluwa, Oluwamayowa and
Oluwagbenga, and my grandson, Damilare for your love,
care and understanding, especially during and through the
trying periods of our lives. We now know better that "all
that glitters is not GOLD".
• To my darling wife, mother and friend of almost 15 years,
Titilayo Tinuade Taiwo. I thank you for your love and
care at all times. I met you when things were really bad, I
was down, but not out. You trusted and lifted me up and
untiringly took care of me and assisted me to take care
and educate my children, as if they were yours. I savour
your doggedness, love and endurance through these years.
I am indeed very grateful. May God Almighty keep you
in His Peace, Love and Joy every day of your life. Amen
in Jesus Name.
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• .All Glory, Honour and Adoration to My Creator,
Almighty God, our Lord Jesus Christ and Precious Holy
Spirit who has kept me alive and well till this day and has
done all these wonderful works through me and has
preserved and sustained me till this very moment. Thank
you Lord, in Jesus Name.
Mr. Vice-Chancellor, Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
I thank you for this great opportunity! Long live University of
Ibadan, Long live Nigeria.
Thank you all for listening.
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BIODATAOF
PROFESSOR VICTOR OLUSEGUN TAIWO
Professor Victor Olusegun Taiwo was born six decades ago at
Alekuso (C2) Area, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. He attended
St. Luke's (now St. Matthew's I) Primary School, Ojowo and
All Saints Primary School, Atikori, both at Ijebu-Igbo, Ogun
State between 1960 and 1965. He had his secondary
education at the famous Molusi College, Ijebu-Igbo between
1966 and 1970, after which he proceeded to the then Institute
of Agricultural Research & Training (I.A.R. & T), University
of Ife, Moor Plantation, Ibadan for a Diploma programme in
Animal Health and Production, between 1971 and 1973. After
working as Livestock AssistantlHigher Livestock Assistant in
the then Remo Division of Western State, later Ogun State,
Nigeria between October 1973 and August 1977, he gained
concessional admission into the University of Ibadan to study
Veterinary Medicine (his dream profession) after two
previous unsuccessful attempts. He obtained the Doctor of
Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), with Distinctions in
Veterinary Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, and
Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine in 1983.
During his DVM programme, he bagged several
scholarship/academic awards and prizes, such as Federal
Government of Nigeria Merit Award (1979-1983), Depart-
mental Prizes for Veterinary Pathology (1981), Veterinary
Microbiology & Parasitology (1982), and Veterinary Public
Health & Preventive Medicine (1983), and all the Faculty and
University prizes for the best student in his graduating class,
including NUPEMECO Prize for the best all-round student in
the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (1983), University of
Ibadan Senate Prize for the best final year student in the
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (1983) and COOMASSIE
Prize (endowed by Mallam Ahmadu Coomassie, O.B.E.) for
the student with the highest marks in the DVM final degree
examination (1983).
He was awarded Research Fellowship Awards by the
International Laboratory for Research in Animal Diseases
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(ILRAD, now ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya to carry out the research
work for his M.Vet.Sci. degree (1986-1987), and doctoral
research (1988-1992) leading to the award of a Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree at the University of Ibadan in
1993. He was employed as Lecturer II in the Department of
Veterinary Pathology in September 1992, and rose to the rank
of Professor in 2006. He has taught Veterinary Pathology to
undergraduate and postgraduate students and has supervised
and examined many Master's and Doctoral students at the
University of Ibadan. He was awarded the Membership of the
Nigeria College of Veterinary Surgeons (MCVSN) in 2004,
and Fellowship (FCVSN) in 2013. He has been a Consultant
Pathologist to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University
of Ibadan, Nigeria since 2003.
Professor Taiwo has served the Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, the University of Ibadan, Veterinary Council of
Nigeria (VCN) and other bodies in various administrative
capacities.
Some of these include:
• Sub-Dean (Undergraduate), Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Ibadan (August 1994 - July
1996).
• Member of Senate, University of Ibadan (July 1995 -
June 1999).
• Assistant Warden, Tedder Hall, University of Ibadan
(April 1998 - May 2000).
• Sub-Dean (Postgraduate), Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Ibadan (August 1998 - July
2003).
• Member, Administrative Committee of the Veterinary
Teaching Hospital, University of Ibadan (August 1998
- July 2003).
• Member, Finance Committee of the Postgraduate
School, University of Ibadan (August 2000- July
2005; and August 1,2009 - July 31, 2013).
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• Member, Committee on Information and Communi-
cation Technology (ICT), University of Ibadan
(August 2001 - August 2003).
• Sub-Dean, Postgraduate School, University of Ibadan
(August 2003 - July 2005).
• Congregation Representative and Chairman of Panel
"H" on the Senior Staff Disciplinary Committee,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan (October, 2008 to date).
• Professor and Member of Senate, University of Ibadan
(October 1, 2006 to date).
• Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Ibadan (August 1,2009 to July 31,2013).
• Head, Department of Veterinary Pathology (August 1,
2013 to date).
• Chairman, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Appoint-
ments and Promotion Panel (Parts I & II), August 1,
2009 to July 31,2013.
• Member, University Appointments and Promotion
Committee, University of Ibadan (2009 to date).
• Member, Research Management Sub-Committee of the
Development Committee, University of Ibadan (2009
to 2013).
• Member, Veterinary Council of Nigeria (VCN)
(August 1,2009 to July 31,2013).
• Member, Committee of Deans of Veterinary Schools
in Nigeria (August 1,2009 to July 31,2013).
• Chairman, VCN Examinations and Registration
Committee, (October, 2011 to July 31,2013).
• Member, National Livestock Development Committee
(NLDC) (2009 to 2013).
• Member, Animal Welfare Initiative, Nigeria (May
2009 to date).
• Chairperson, University of Ibadan Animal Care and
Use Research Ethics Committee (ACUREC) (January
1,2014 to date).
• Hall Master, Tedder Hall University of Ibadan, Ibadan
(October, 2014 to date).
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Professor Taiwo has taught, supervised and/or examined
undergraduate and postgraduate students at the University of
Maiduguri, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka since 2005 till date. He has supervised
numerous undergraduate students' projects, 12 Masters'
dissertations and four Doctoral theses at the University of
Ibadan. He has travelled far and wide on numerous trips
within the country and abroad on local and international
Conferences and Training Workshops to Ghana, Kenya,
Amsterdam, Ivory Coast, Malaysia and USA. He has served
as both Internal and External Assessor for Promotions to
Professorial cadres in various Faculties within the University
of Ibadan and other Universities outside Ibadan and Nigeria,
notably Kwame Nkuruma University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. He has published a total of 100
publications, including 76 journal articles, 14 peer-reviewed
conference proceedings, one book and co-edited 9 books.
Professor Taiwo is happily married and has five boys
(Segun, Jr., Bunmi, Ayo, Sola and Gbenga) and two girls
(Modupe and Mayowa) and a grandson, Damilare.
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NATIONAL ANTHEM
Arise, 0 compatriots
Nigeria's call obey
To serve our fatherland
With love and strength and faith
The labour of our heroes' past
Shall never be in vain
To serve with heart and might
One nation bound in freedom
Peace and unity
o God of creation
Direct our noble cause
Guide thou our leaders right
Help our youths the truth to know
In love and honesty to grow
And living just and true
Great lofty heights attain
To build a nation where peace
And justice shall reign
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN ANTHEM
Unibadan, Fountainhead
Of true learning, deep and sound
Soothing spring for all who thirst
Bounds of knowledge to advance
Pledge to serve our cherished goals!
Self-reliance, unity
That our nation may with pride
Help to build a world that is truly free
Unibadan, first and best
Raise true minds for a noble cause
Social justice, equal chance
Greatness won with honest toil
Guide our people this to know
Wisdom's best to service turned
Help enshrine the right to learn
For a mind that knows is a mind that's free
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 IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY