SELF-ESTEEM, PEER INFLUENCE AND SOCIAL MEDIA UTILISATION AS CORRELATES OF READING HABIT OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA BY Risikat Ayodele BUSARI B.Ed. (Ilorin), M.Sc. (Ile-Ife), MSM (Ibadan) SI: 140887 A Thesis in the Centre for Educational Media Resource Studies, Submitted to the Faculty of Education in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of the UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN NOVEMBER, 2015 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY DEDICATION To the Almighty Allah; My husband, Bayo; My children: Kafayah, Habibah, Muibah, Halimah, Hassanah and Hamdallah. ii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CERTIFICATION I certify that this thesis was carried out by Risikat Ayodele BUSARI at the Centre for Educational Media Resource Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria under my supervision. …………………………… …………………… Dr. A. O. Egunjobi Date N.C.E., B.Ed (Ibadan), M.A. Ed (Ile-Ife), Ph.D (Ibadan) ii i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Almighty Allah, the Omnipotent, Omnipresent and Omniscience, for without His mercies, I would not have gone as far as this level. My appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr. A. O. Egunjobi for his support and academic guidance in making this work attain an acceptable standard. I will forever be grateful to you, sir. The Ag. Director of the Centre, Dr. Fadekemi Oyewusi deserves appreciation. She related with me like a sister and a friend in the course of my studies and research. May God continually protect you and your household. I am also indebted to all the academic staff of the Centre: Prof. D. F. Elaturoti, Doctors Margaret Alegbeleye, P. O. Olaojo, S. O. Akande and Mrs. Alice Bamigbola. I am especially grateful to Dr. K. A. Aramide and Dr. Idayat M. Lamidi, for painstakingly reading through the work and for making significant input at different stages. Equally, I thank all the non-academic staff of the Centre: Messrs I. Adebayo, E. Oni, I. Faloye, K. O. Aderinboye, D. Isong, A. Ajani; and Mrs Edith O. Nwokolo, Mrs Dorcas Ajadi, Mrs Tosin Fariogun, Mrs Victoria Awobusuyi, Mrs Hope Olawuwo, and Mrs Olufunmilayo Amole. You are all wonderful. I am also grateful to Mr. A. Oladosu, Mr. F. Y. Raheem and Mrs Riike Oladimeji all of the Teaching Service Commission (TESCOM), Oyo State for their kind assistance during the data collection for this study. I will not fail to acknowledge the fact that Prof. M. O. Olaoba of the Institute of African Studies introduced the Centre to me. God will not forget you, sir. I also appreciate the support received from Prof. I. A. Nwazuoke of the Department of Special Education, Dr. Olanike Busari and Dr. B. Oluwole, the Sub-Dean (Postgraduate), Faculty of Education, Dr. I. Tella and Dr. I. A. Salami of the Department of Teacher Education as well as Dr. S. O. Popoola and Dr. K. I. N. Nwalo of the Department of Library, Archival and Information Studies. Dr. M. W. Olatokun of African Regional Centre for Information Studies is also appreciated for his immense assistance. I am particularly indebted to Dr. K. O. Kester, former Sub-Dean (Postgraduate), Faculty of Education for his keen interest in the work. I also thank my analyst, Mr. T. Odewumi. I also acknowledge my colleagues in the Centre – Busayo Oguntoye, Sophia Adeyeye, O. Adekugbe, Adeola George, B. O. Ogunwuyi, Adeola Oniyide, Catherine Olaotan, Ann Sheed, M. Odunaro, O. Adigun among others, for their support and encouragement. iv UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY I will never forget the support I received from my staff at the Local Government Pension Board namely: B. Kareem, Faosat Okanlawon, O. Dare, A. Demola, Joke Osungbaroye, Aminat Abiola, Kehinde Oladeebo, K. Deoti, K. Mutiu, N. Gbadegesin, S. Sunmoila and Dayo Lasisi, my secretary who assisted in computer processing during this programme. I say big thank to you all. My friends – Mrs. Titi Ahmed, Dr. Ayo Alaga, Dr. Ronke Fagbola, Alhaja Biodun Ojewumi, the Adebimpes, Mrs. Faosat Adeyemo, Dr. Elizabeth Ogunjobi, Alh. M. T Azeez, Barr. H. A. Raji, Alh. I. Najimdeen, Mrs. Nike Adeyemi. You are all duly acknowledged. My special thanks also go to my brothers and their wives – Alhaji and lhaja Bayo Raji, Mr. and Mrs. Bidemi Raji; my sister, Alhaja Ranti Abioye and my brothers: Ibrahim Raji, Wale and Yinka Ajasa and my in-laws: S. Fadaiya, Mrs. Aminat Qadir and Mrs. Jumoke Busari. My gratitude goes to Dr. O. Ajayi (my ophthalmologist) for encouraging me to embark on this programme despite my visual challenges. I thank the courier officers of the local governments in Oyo State, most especially the 18 local government areas that were selected for the study for their cooperation. Finally, I am grateful to those that have played significant roles before, during and at the completion of this programme. You are all specially acknowledged. v UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………… i DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………. ii CERTIFICATION ……………………………………………………………... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………. iv LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………….. ix LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………… x ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………… xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………….. 1 1.1 Background to the study ………………………………………………… 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ...…………………………………………… 9 1.3 Objectives of the study .…………………………………………………… 10 1.4 Research questions ………………………………………………………… 10 1.5 Significance of the study ………………………………………………… 11 1.6 Scope of the study …………………………………………………… 12 1.7 Operational definition of terms …………………………………………… 12 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………. 14 2.1 Reading habit and academic achievement of secondary school students… 14 2.2 Social media utilisation and secondary school students …………… 19 2.3 Self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation ……………… 29 2.4 Self-esteem and reading habit of secondary school students……… ……... 45 2.5 Peer influence and reading habit of secondary school students ……… 47 2.6 Social media utilisation and reading habit of secondary school students 49 2.7 School type and secondary school students‟ reading habit …………….. 53 2.8 Theoretical framework ………………………………………………… 54 2.9 Conceptual model …………………………………………………….. 56 2.10 Appraisal of literature reviewed ………………………………………… 57 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ………………………………….. 59 3.1 Research design …………………………………………………….…. 59 v i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3.2 Population of the study ………………………………………………. 59 3.3 Sampling technique and sample …………………………………….. 59 3.4 Research instrument ………………………………………………… 60 3.5 Validation and reliability of instrument …………………………….. 62 3.6 Data collection procedure ……………………………………………. 63 3.7 Methods of data analysis …………………………………………….. 63 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS …….. 64 4.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents …………………………… 64 4.2 Data analysis based on research questions …………………………….. 65 4.3 Discussion of findings ……………………………………………….... 78 4.3.1 Level of reading habit of Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State, Nigeria …………………………………………….……….... 78 4.3.2 Level of self-esteem of Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State, Nigeria ………………………………………………….. 80 4.3.3 Level of peer influence of senior secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria ………………………………………………….. 80 4.3.4 Purpose of usage of social media by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria …………………………………………………….. 81 4.3.5 Means of utilisation of social media of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria ………………………………………… 81 4.3.6 Most used social media by Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State, Nigeria ……………………………………………………..….. 82 4.3.7 Difference between reading habit of Senior Secondary Schools students in public and private schools in Oyo State, Nigeria ……..... 83 4.3.8 Joint contribution of self-esteem, peer influence and utilisation of social media to reading habits ……………………………………….. 83 4.3.9 Relative contributions of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to the reading habits of secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria …………………………………………………… 84 4.4.10 Pattern of relationship among self-esteem, peer influence, social media utilisation and reading habits of Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State, Nigeria …………………………………………………… 86 vi i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary of findings ………………………………………………… 87 5.2 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… 87 5.2 Recommendations ……………………………………………………. 88 5.3 Implications of the findings ………………………………………….. 90 5.4 Contributions to knowledge …………………………………………. 91 5.5 Limitations of the study ……………………………………………… 91 5.6 Suggestions for further researches ………………………………….. 91 REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………. 93 APPENDIX I: Research instrument …………………………………….. 115 APPENDIX II: Summary of schools and population sampled based on senatorial districts …………………………………………… 122 APPENDIX III: Summary of questionnaire administered and the rate of return based on schools ……………………………………….. 123 APPENDIX IV: List of Senior Secondary Schools II (public and private) in Oyo State based on Local Government Areas ……………. 129 APPENDIX V: List of Senior Secondary School II (public and private) sampled based on senatorial district ……………………… 130 APPENDIX VI: Summary of research questions, source of data and data analysis strategy ………………………………………......... 135 APPENDIX VII: List of retrieved questionnaire ……………………………….. 136 APPENDIX VIII: Letter of introduction ……………………………………….. 137 vi ii UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Summary of research questions, source of data, data analysis strategies ………………………………………………………. 62 Table 3.2: Reliability level of the instrument ……………………...…… 63 Table 3.3: List of retrieved questionnaires ………………………………. 64 Table 4.1: Level of the Reading Habits of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State ………………………………………… 68 Table 4.2: Level of Self-esteem of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State ……………………………………………………… 71 Table 4.3: Level of Peer Influence of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State ………………………………………………………. 73 Table 4.4: Purpose of Usage of Social Media by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State ………………………………………..…… 75 Table 4.5: Means of Utilisation of Social Media Sites by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State ………………………..………… 76 Table 4.6: Extent of use of Social Media by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State …………………………………………. 78 Table 4.7: Difference between the Reading Habits of Public and Private Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State ……………… 79 Table 4.8: Joint Contributions of the Self-esteem, Peer Influence and Social Media Utilisation to Reading Habits of the Students ……. 80 Table 4.9: Relative contributions of Self-esteem, Peer Influence and Social Media Utilisation to the Reading Habits of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State ………………………………..… 81 Table 4.10: Correlation matrix showing the relationships between Self-esteem, Peer Influence and Social Media Utilisation to the Reading Habits of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State …………………………………….………………. 82 ix UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 2.1: Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs (original five-stage model) ……… 54 Fig. 2.2: Conceptual model for the study developed by the researcher … 57 Fig. 4.1 Pie chart showing the distribution of the respondents by gender .. 66 Fig. 4.2 Pie chart showing the distribution of respondents by subject classification ……………………………………………………… 67 x UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ABSTRACT The reading habit of secondary school students in Nigeria has been found to be on the decline. This trend can be traced to lack of library infrastructure and facilities in most schools and homes. This has raised concern among stakeholders and portends danger for the academic performance. Previous studies have focused more on home- and school-related factors with little emphasis on students-related factors such as self- esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation. This study, therefore, examined the extent to which self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation correlated with the reading habit of secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria. The study adopted survey design. Eighteen Local Government Areas (LGAs) were randomly selected across the three senatorial districts of the state. Eight senior secondary schools (4 public; 4 private) were randomly selected from each of the 16 out of the 18 LGAs used; while six schools (4 public; 2 private) were selected from each of the two remaining LGAs. The stratified random sampling technique was adopted in selecting 2,468 senior secondary II students across the 140 schools used for the study. Four scales were used for data collection: Self-esteem (α=0.79), Peer Influence (α=0.75), Social Media Utilisation (α=0.76) and Reading Habit (Purpose: α=0.80, Mannerism: α=0.75, Pattern: α=0.70, Types: α=0.65, Frequency: α=0.79) scales. Data were analysed using percentages, Pearson moment correlation and multiple regression at 0.05 level of significance. Reading to pass examinations (68.4%), self-development (66.7%), acquisition of information (61.1%), leisure and fun-seeking (58.3%), desire to be at par with mates (54.2%) and while away time (52.6%) were purposes for reading. Coffee-taking (47.6%), soaking legs in water (38.4%), drug usage (36.6%), gum chewing (35.1%), listening to music (34.5%) and biting finger nails (33.0%) were done alongside with reading. Reading frequencies among the students were: less than one hour (53.8%), 2 - 4 hours (49.7%), one hour (40.1%), 4 - 6 hours (38.9%), and 6 hours and above (32.6%). Self-esteem, peer influence, and social media utilisation jointly contributed to the reading habit senior secondary II students (F(3,2464)=111.17) and accounted for 12.0% of its variance. Social media utilisation (β=0.32) and peer influence (β=0.06) had significant relative contribution to reading habit while self-esteem did not. Social media utilisation (r=0.34), peer influence (r=0.19) and self-esteem (r=0.16) had significant correlations with reading habit. There was a significant difference (t=2.53; df=2466) in the reading habit of students in private ( x =99.50) and public ( x =95.63) schools. Students‟ self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation influenced reading habit among senior secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Therefore, concerted effort should be made to encourage the students to increase their reading hours with less emphasis on induced reading to pass examinations. In addition, educational agencies and social media service providers should intensify awareness on positive reading habit among senior secondary school students. Keywords: Peer influence, Reading habit of senior secondary school students in Oyo State, Social media utilisation. Word count: 463 x i UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study The Chief Examiners‟ Reports on the West African Examination Council (WAEC) examinations expressed the concern on the rate of failure of secondary school students who have been sitting for the Board‟s examinations. The report of 2006 (which was the result of review carried out for a period of three years 2004-2006) submitted that the generally poor performance of candidates was indicative of poor (and perhaps, declining) quality of education at the Senior Secondary School level. The report went on to recommend, among others that government and school authorities should identify the causative factors for the poor (and in some cases steadily declining) performance level of school candidates at the Senior Secondary school level. The report recommended that the development of good reading habit by the candidates should be promoted. The report of the following year, 2007 was not significantly different as the performance of the majority of the candidates was also found to be poor. The candidates were found to have shallow knowledge of the subject matter and lacked understanding of the requirements of the questions. The report thus recommended that candidates should be encouraged to buy textbooks and read them when preparing for an examination. The implication of this is that unless Senior Secondary school students develop good reading habit, their failure at the terminal examination may continue to recur. A pointer that there is need to identify the reason behind the consistent poor performance of students at the Senior Secondary school examinations is reinforced by the fact that seven years after the earlier reviewed reports, students have continued to perform poorly at the national examination. The results of the May/June, 2014 Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) in which only 31.28% of the total candidates that sat for the examination recorded credit passes in five subjects (Nigerian Tribune, 2014) showed again that the rate of failure calls for concern. One of the reasons attributed to this observed failure was the decline in the reading habit of secondary school students in Nigeria (Oguntuashe, 2011). A preliminary observation carried out by the researcher among Senior Secondary school students in some schools 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY in Ibadan metropolis of Oyo State showed that many students no longer engage in purposeful reading activities. For the few of them that visited the library, they were found to engage themselves with other activities not related to reading like using their mobile telephone for non-academic related activities. The fear by education experts (which is in line with the Chief Examiners‟ reports) is that the declining reading habit may likely affect the academic performance of Senior Secondary School students in Nigeria. This failure, they pointed out, may have effect on the family, the society and the nation as a whole. For a student who failed to achieve anything meaningful academically, life may not hold much meaning; consequently the affected students may face a bleak future. The effect of a student who has failed in his studies on the country may include such a student becoming a social misfit and not being able to contribute meaningfully to the development of his society. For the family that has expended much resources to send a child to school to acquire education, a sense of loss may set in when such a child fails in his educational career as a result of poor reading habit. Equally, the society and indeed the country may be saddled with Senior Secondary students who may have dropped out of school or end up as academic failures because they have failed to cultivate good reading habit. Reading is one of the sources through which human beings acquire knowledge. It is also one of the best pastimes through which an individual can keep himself busy when he has nothing more significant to do. Reading is usually a private act, a personal and individual relationship with a book or other reading materials, which when carried out repeatedly over time, can lead to the cultivation of a habit. Reading habit is formed when an individual has developed a strong love or passion for reading and has developed a desire to read all through his lifetime (Shen, 2006; Alawiye, Owolabi and Olagesin, 2012). Reading habit is reflected in the pattern that an individual has established for his reading activities, often beginning from childhood. Thanuskodi (2011) asserted that reading habit serves as means to an end and explained further that they are significant to the social, academic and economic survival of the individual. There is no doubt that those who have good reading habit make the best use of their real and spare time as they keep their minds away from the worries that might distract them if they fail to utilise their time judiciously. 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Reading is a purposeful act, involving the perception, comprehension, interpretation and integration of ideas contained in written language; requiring thinking, feeling and imagination of the reader (Okwilagwe, 1992; cited in Idogo, 2011; Thanuskodi, 2011). It is, therefore, necessary that Senior Secondary school students cultivate the habit of reading, which is developed through constant reading. Good reading habit provides students with the tools of passing knowledge from generation to generation (Okebukola, 2004). According to Issa, Aliyu, Akangbe and Adedeji (2012), reading is one of the most effective processes of conscious learning and sometimes influences the extent and accuracy of information as well as the attitudes, morals, beliefs, judgment and action of readers thereby helping in sustaining the linkage in human development. In essence, the cultivation of reading habit is an essential tool for lifelong learning. As such, it is important for everyone to develop the rudiments of reading and the culture of reading always so as to survive in life as it adds quality to life and provides access to culture and cultural heritage. The art of reading is a priceless instrument for everyone; an important activity of life through which we enter into the life and experiences of others and extend our knowledge, scope of experience and enjoyment. It also has a critical role to play in the overall development of an individual and the nation at large. Earlier researches (Issa, Aliyu, Akangbe and Adedeji, 2012) have documented that from middle childhood through adulthood, reading habit is a major component of studying and that much information learned through studying is initially acquired through reading. There is no doubt that through a good reading habit, the individual is able to build or fix things, enjoy stories, discover what others believe and develop ideas/beliefs of his own. It can thus be posited that a student would have formed good reading habit when he has become an independent reader who can rely on his memory and experience in order to understand what is read. Greene (2001) noted that reading habit should be developed at an early age and nurtured continuously to help individuals become lifelong learners. One way through which this could be encouraged is through making reading enjoyable to the learner. This is because students‟ aspirations could be significantly mediated through the secondary school years and transformed into career choices later by a range of factors including interest in reading. Good reading habit will require the practice of reading regularly without thinking about it, unconsciously becoming part and parcel of a student‟s life. Igbokwe, Obidike and Ezeji (2012), 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY however, noted that as a result of technological development, reading habit among secondary school students are fast vanishing into thin air as the technology is slowly taking a steady control over the individual‟s life. They further observed that students now spend more hours on electronic media; browsing the net, playing with funky handsets and passing non-stop SMSs (short message services). These eventually make reading a book or any other piece of written material by students a somewhat archaic idea. A study conducted on the reading habit of Senior Secondary students in Allahabad, India, concluded that students need to improve their reading habit (Kumar, Ansari and Shukia, 2010). However, recent technological advancements in computing, cable television, Internet, video and computer games, mobile phone, chat rooms and blogs have come to influence the reading habit of secondary school students. Majid and Tan (2007) noted that these are eroding Senior Secondary school students‟ time and attention and are becoming serious competitors with books, with which they have hitherto been familiar. The implication of this is that even when students are required to learn, they will prefer to spend their time more on social media than the print materials. These days, it has become the norm for secondary school students, even while walking by the road side, to be busy fiddling with handheld devices, oblivious of events around them. The researcher‟s observation of Senior Secondary school students revealed that most students who visited libraries to read often went with their mobile phones and engaged part of the time they ought to spend reading on working with the phone. A study which investigated the favourite pastime activities of primary and middle school students in China corroborated this observation. The study reported that watching TV was preferred to reading books among the most popular leisure activities of the students (Liu, 2000). An earlier similar survey of primary one to primary five pupils/students in Hong Kong found that watching television and playing computer games were the two most preferred after-school leisure activities (Education Department, 2001). Furthermore, another study in Britain concluded that students, aged between 11 and 18 years, were more likely to watch TV or use the Internet than reading a book (Market and Opinion Research International, 2004). 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Secondary school is the link between primary and tertiary education. It is a place where students are provided with part or all of their secondary education. This is classified as junior and Senior Secondary schools in Nigeria. Little is known about the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Nigeria and how this is affected by self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation. Senior Secondary students could see reading habit from different perspectives, depending on their mindset. Some could see it as being more of a requirement, others, a challenge while some could see it as a duty, and not a pleasure and a pastime that allows the reader to get immersed in something positive. Yet others could consider it as an ambivalent exercise, risking a reader to be viewed as showing off, instead of a positive trait of a personality, especially if they find themselves among non-interested readers. From whichever perspective a reader sees reading, there is no doubt that not much success can be achieved in an individual‟s life if he does not see reading as a fruitful and worthwhile venture. One of the factors that could be responsible for this shift in reading habit among Senior Secondary school students is self-esteem, which can play a key role in the use of social media by students. Self-esteem is the opinion an individual holds about his personality, which involves an overall evaluation of an individual‟s perception of himself, including feelings of general happiness and satisfaction (Harter, 1999; cited in Rader, 2011). These opinions are at the heart of self-esteem and they affect how an individual feels about and values himself. It is a component located in the sphere of an individual‟s self- image, situated in both psychological and sociological paradigms, particularly since it has been shown to affect ones‟ psyche and social well-being (Simmons and Rosenberg, 1973). One thing that has been established is that self-esteem is not static and fixed as beliefs about oneself can change throughout life as a result of circumstances and experiences. Feldman (2001) noted that the concept was developed through the social interactions with an individual‟s environment. Lane, Lane and Kyprianou (2004) furthermore lent credence to this, asserting that this is culturally as well as socially determined. For instance, values and norms that are defined in one culture may differ in comparison to other cultures. A student‟s level of self-esteem is believed to affect his degree of confidence in the achievement of whatever task the student sets out to achieve and that self-esteem could 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY either be high or low (James and Nightingale, 2005). They further pointed out that a student with high self-esteem will display a normal or constant disposition often because of the perception that he can achieve whatever tasks that lies ahead of him. Such a student will always be comfortable and positive with reading tasks. On the other hand, a student with a low self-esteem will have a negative evaluation of himself in the achievement of the task before him, which tends to perpetuate the circle of low self- esteem thus creating a negative expectation about his ability (Feldman, 2001). Feldman further stated that a student with low self-esteem can overcome this by learning to face his fears and by learning from his previous experience, especially where he had performed better. Another factor that could affect the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students is peer influence. This is a social influence that is brought to bear on somebody by his mate to adopt a type of behaviour or attitude in order for him to be accepted as a part of a particular group. Habits are acquired from parents, peers or teachers, who are the people that are culturally closest to the individual and who therefore mostly influence habit and character formation. For instance, a study conducted in Florida, United States of America among students of the same class found that students do exert influence on one another in the performance under a classroom setting (Burke and Sass, 2008). The potential for peers to affect individual achievement, they further argued, is central to many important policy issues in elementary and secondary education, which could include the use of social media devices by students. In an age where information can now be acquired by a student in any desired format, there is the tendency for them to feel „left‟ out if they do not appear to be „technology savvy‟ before their peers. The concept of being „technology savvy‟ here is being abreast of the limitless opportunities that the availability of ICT places before a learner in the learning process. These opportunities can be accessed through different social media that abound through the deployment of and accessibility to functional social media sites. Social media could also play an influential role in changing the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students. Social media are resources that help people belong to an online community, through which they can exchange and share information about one another as well as access other useful resources that are available. They are platforms 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY for building social interactions or social relations among people who share similar interests, activities, backgrounds or real life connections (WebCrawler, 2014). The use of these social media by students in the learning process makes it possible for them to access the Internet any time they so desire. A study by ELNORD (2006) found that pupils use ICTs, which encompass social media, for educational purposes, as a collaborative tool such as e-mailing, chatting and using mobile phones to communicate with classmates, giving and receiving help when doing their homework. The finding of this study was furthermore corroborated in its reference to the European Nordic states. These have been pioneering the introduction of ICT in learning as it established the benefits that the deployments of ICT have brought to pupils‟ performance, to the teaching and the learning processes, knowledge-sharing, communication and home- school cooperation. However, where the use of the Internet may come in conflict with reading is highlighted in the position of Punie, Zinnbauer and Cabrera (2006) when they noted that a future learning environment that is not supported in one way or another by social media sites may be difficult and may even be impossible to imagine. They predicted that the current widespread diffusion and use of social media in modern societies, especially by the so-called digital generation, will affect the complete learning process today and in the future. The question that arises is whether the future that Punie, Zinnbauer and Cabrera (2006) predicted should do away with traditional textual reading by students; more so when it is considered that majority of the students could engage in the use of these social media not for real academic purposes, especially in the absence of proper guidance. As a result of the viral speed with which the use of social media technologies is growing among secondary school students (Jones and Fox, 2009), there is a great deal of popular and academic interest in the impact these technologies may have on students‟ academic outcomes (Abramson, 2011; Kamenetz, 2011). According to Kuh (2009), at least, one of these outcomes, that is, student engagement is positively related to multiple desired outcomes of a secondary education (such as cognitive development, psychosocial development, self-esteem, locus of control, moral and ethical development, and persistence). Furthermore, Condie and Munro (2007) posited that social media can increase students‟ motivation and engagement, as well as increase independent learning and autonomy while improving core skills such as collaborative learning and 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY communication. All of these factors, Togun (2008) posited contribute to better knowledge, understanding and skills; which can in turn impact the educational attainment of students. The current social media tools which go by a peculiar set of names include: Wall Posts, Status Updates, Activity Feeds, Thumbs Ups, and Profiles. These tools are features of social media sites (SMS) and they include Badoo, BBM, Bebo, BlackPlanet, Classmates, Clixtr, Cyworld, Diigo, Facebook, Foursquare, Fresqui, Flixster, Friendster, Google Talk, Gala Online, Gowalla, Hi5, Habbo, Hyves.nl, Ibibo, iWiW, IRC-Galleria. Others include Kaixin001, Linkedin, Meetup, Messenger, Millat, Mixi Tagged, myHeritage, Mylife, MySpace, myYearbook, Multiply, Naigalonge, Nasza- Klasapl, Netlog, NING, Orkut, PerfSpot, Propeller, Reddit, Renren, Skype, SkyRock, Sonico, StudiVZ, Stumble, Technocrat, Tuenti, Twade, Twiki, Twitter, WhatsApp, Wer-kenntwen, Xing, Yelp, Zorpia and 2Go (www.socialmediatoday.com; O‟Reilly, 2007). In 2005, social media sites like MySpace and Facebook became common destinations for young people in the United States, who throughout the country, were logging in and creating elaborate profiles by publicly articulating their relationships with other participants, and writing extensive comments back and forth. Boyd (2007) pointed out that it was unknown that by 2006, many would consider participation on the key social media site, MySpace, essential to being seen as „cool at school‟. He further stated that these sites developed significant cultural resonance among American teens in a short period of time, notwithstanding that not all teens were members of the social media sites. A study by Oyewusi and Ayanlola (2014) on the effect of mobile phone use among private secondary school students in Oyo State found that majority of the respondents perceived that mobile phone was a relevant tool that can aid their educational achievement. The rapid adoption of social media by teenagers in many other countries around the world has raised some important questions. These include: why do secondary school students flock to these sites? How do these sites fit into their lives? What are they learning from their participation? How does access to the sites impact their reading 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY habit? Available literature showed that hardly any study has been done on the correlation between the reading habit and self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation of Senior Secondary school students in Nigeria. This study, therefore, investigated self-esteem, peer influence, social media utilisation as correlates of reading habit of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria. 1.2 Statement of the problem The reading habit of secondary school students in Nigeria has been found to be on the decline. This portends danger for the academic performance of these students. Previous studies (which have identified several factors) focused more on home- and school- related factors as being responsible for this decline. These factors included lack of library infrastructure and facilities in most schools and homes, inadequate funding of education by governments at all levels, inappropriate teaching methodologies, declining parental care, among others. However, little emphasis has been given to students- related factors such as self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation. It is important to note that these Senior Secondary School students, who are in the impressionistic stage of their lives, could be influenced by factors that could distract them from developing good reading habit, an essential ingredient for lifelong learning. It is imperative that these factors be investigated to find out how they affect the reading habit of students. The study, therefore, investigated the correlation among self-esteem, peer influence, utilisation of social media and the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria. 1.3 Objectives of the study The main objective is to determine how to improve the reading habit of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study are to: 1. investigate the level of reading habit of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State; 2. examine the level of self-esteem of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State; 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3. find out the level of peer influence among Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State; 4. establish the purpose of social media usage by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State; 5. find out the means of utilisation of social media by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State; 6. find out the most used social media by Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo investigate State; 7. the difference between the reading habit of public and private Secondary Senior School students in Oyo State; 8. find out the joint contributions of self-esteem, peer influence, social media utilisation to the reading habit of Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State; 9. find out the relative contribution of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to the reading habit Senior Secondary Students in Oyo State; and 10. examine the pattern of relationships that exist among the independent and dependent variables (self-esteem, peer influence, social media utilisation and reading habit). 1.4 Research questions The study sought answers to the following questions: 1. What is the level of reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 2. What is the level of self-esteem of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 3. What is the level of peer influence among Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 4. What is the purpose of use of social media by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 5. What are the means of utilisation of social media sites by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 10 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6. What is the most used social media sites by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 7. What is the difference in reading habit between public and private Secondary School students in Oyo State? 8. What are the joint contributions of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 9. What are the relative contributions of each of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 10. What is the pattern of relationship that exists among self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation and the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 1.5 Significance of the study In accordance with the observation that the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students has been on the decline, it is expected that this study would provide information on measures to halt this and suggest ways of improving students‟ reading habit. Findings of the study are also expected to enrich existing literature on Senior Secondary school students‟ self-esteem, peer influence and use of social media sites as they affect reading habit. The findings are also expected to help school library centre media specialists develop strategies of making reading attractive and enjoyable to students in secondary schools rather than wasting their valuable time using social media unproductively. Since the utilisation of social media is yet to be inculcated into the school library media centre services, the outcome of this study would be of immense benefit to students in Senior Secondary schools on how they can avail themselves of the opportunities available through social media devices so as to re-direct their reading habit positively. The study is also expected to be useful to stakeholders such as school administrators, parents, students and media providers in the area of providing guidance to students especially on social media utilisation. 11 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Another area where the study would be significant is in the establishment of the correlation between social media use and reading habit. This is against the backdrop of the recent introduction of a programme tagged „Opon imo‟ (Tablet of knowledge) by the Osun State government. The programme involves distribution of iPad tablet to secondary school students in the state. The tablets, which have Internet connectivity, are uploaded with school subject text books and other educational materials, thereby making it easy for the students to read without having to visit a physical library and also make use of online facilities. As such, the study is expected to avail governments at all levels of how the use of social media could be of benefit to secondary school students. Where this is established, the introduction of similar programme may be considered by the Oyo State government, just as it was done by the government of Osun State. Oyo State government runs a free education system; as such, it is important to identify factors responsible for Senior Secondary School students‟ dwindling performance in national examinations. This will be with a view to prevent government‟s investment in education from going down the drains since students from the state are among those whose results have been found to be abysmally poor in recent years. 1.6 Scope of the study The study covered self-esteem, peer influence, social media utilisation and reading habit of Senior Secondary II students in Oyo State, Nigeria. The population covered all Senior Secondary school (SS II) students in both public and private schools in Oyo State. The study looked into the level of self-esteem of the students and the level of influence peers have on one another. The purpose of usage of social media by Senior Secondary school students was also investigated. Equally, the level of reading habit of the students was also investigated. The social media sites considered included: Badoo, BBM, Clixtr, Diigo, Facebook, Foursquare, Fresqui, Google Talk, Gowalla, Hi5, Messenger, MySpace, Naigalonge, Orkut, Propeller, Reddit, Skype, Stumble, Technocrat, Twade, Twiki, Twitter, WhatsApp, Yelp and 2Go. 1.7 Operational definition of terms The following terms are defined as used in this study: 12 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Peer influence: This refers to how schoolmates influence their fellow students, in the usage of social media in relation to their reading habit, which could either be positively or negatively. Reading habit: This is a settled reading disposition of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State, cultivated over time, towards reading of written materials for academic purpose, to seek for information and for self-development and measured by the number of different items read and time spent on reading. Self-esteem: The self-evaluation or self-worth that Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State have in themselves, either in a positive or negative way, that they possess the power to accomplish tasks and influence events that affect their lives. Social media: These are Internet resources that allow students to access online community through which information can be exchanged or shared. Social media utilisation: This is how Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State use social media resources in a variety of ways to exchange and share information with their peers or for other purposes. 13 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The review covered the following: 2.1 Reading habit and academic achievement of secondary school students 2.2 Social media utilisation and secondary school students 2.3 Self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation 2.4 Self-esteem and reading habit of Senior Secondary School students 2.5 Peer influence and reading habit of Senior Secondary School students 2.6 Social media utilisation and reading habit of Senior Secondary School students 2.7 School type and secondary school students‟ reading habit 2.8 Theoretical framework 2.9 Conceptual model 2.10 Appraisal of the literature reviewed 2.1 Reading habit and academic achievement of secondary school students Reading is a deliberate act. It presupposes that a reader has a reason for engaging in the act as it is this that can lead him to forming a reading habit. The formation of reading habit is what makes a reader to focus his attention, or gives him a goal, to work toward reading. This is because intrinsic motivation toward reading is generated when students have a purpose for reading. Without a purpose, there can be no motivation; and without this, no reader can be posited to have formed the habit of reading. Zhang and Duke (2008) in a study among Internet users in Midwestern University, Texas identified three purposes for reading, which if done repeatedly over time can lead to cultivation of reading habit. These are seeking specific information, acquiring general knowledge and being entertained. Following the position of several authors that Internet reading has come to be regarded as one of the „new literacies‟ skills (Alvermann, 2002; Leu, 2002; Coiro, 2003 cited in Susan, Rush, Eakle and Berger, 2008; Lankshear and Knobel, 2003), Narvaez, van den Broek and Ruiz (1999; cited in Linderholm, 2006) identified two purposes: reading for study and reading for entertainment. Information is 14 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY indispensable in the life of any individual as it bridges the gap between knowledge and ignorance (Yusuf, 2007). One of the major sources for acquiring information is through reading; as it forms the foundation upon which other academic skills are built. Reading offers a productive approach to improving vocabulary, word power, and language skills. As such, it is very vital to the progress and development in human life, more especially its importance in the development of children and adolescents‟ academic life cannot be over emphasised. The cultivation of good reading habit influences the promotion of one‟s personal development in particular and social progress in general. Regular and systematic reading, which leads to formation of reading habit sharpens the intellect, refines the emotions, elevates tastes and provides perspectives for one‟s living. This eventually prepares a person for an effective participation in the social, religious, cultural and political life of his environment. Reading is a vital factor affecting intellectual and emotional growth, justifying the popular saying that reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. This leads to the cultivation of reading habit which helps to fire the imagination of the person because it gives the individual who reads well a means for widening mental horizons and for multiplying opportunities of success. Reading has become much more complex and involves the understanding of a whole text composed of written signs. Reading is as an active attempt on the part of reader to understand a writer‟s message. Toit (2001) posited that it is as a process of thinking, recalling and relating concepts under the functioning of written words. Devarajan (1989; cited in Tella and Akande, 2007) had earlier defined reading as the art of interpreting printed and written words. What this can lead to is the formation of reading habit on the part of the reader. This is why Irvin (1998) described the reading process as the art of interaction of what is in the head of the reader with what he reads within a particular context, which causes him to comprehend what has been read. Thus, reading habit helps in the ability to recognise and examine words or sentences and understand the information within. It is a cognitive process of understanding a written linguistic message and to examine and grasp the meaning of written or printed characters, words or sentences (Sadoski and Paivio, 2004). It is furthermore a communication skill along with writing, speaking, listening and thinking, requiring gaining meaning from graphic 15 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY representations. It is a total integrative process that starts with the reader and includes the affective, the perceptual, and the cognitive domains (Dorothy, 2002). It is however both a process and a product as it is more than just receiving a literal sense. It involves bringing an individual's entire experiences and thinking powers to bear to understand what the writer has encoded. It is this that makes it important that a reader should develop the habit of reading; which is a true indicator of the individuality in a person. Shabi and Udofia (2009) defined reading habit as that which has been cultivated in everyday life and not just for school purpose. Philip (2009) posited reading tend to be associated with course work and examinations and rarely with pleasure while Ganguly (2004) argued that reading habit could be posited to be a single aspect of the broad culture where reading for pleasure becomes a natural part of daily existence. He emphasised that over time, reading ceases to become the uphill task of reading to pass examination. Rather, it takes on an intrinsic value of reading for the sake of reading until an inclination to further reading is developed. This is why it is important that reading habit be promoted from an early age of the individual; and as Aliu, Olaseni and Mathew (2012) pointed out; the urge to read books will become natural once people develop the habit. Reading habit among Nigerians has been found to be a source of worry (Aina; Okusaga; Taiwo and Ogundipe, 2011). Students are described as having low reading habit (Arua and Lederer, 2003 cited in Ezenandu, 2011; Muodumogu, 2006; Bodunde, 2006); the lack of which is antithetical to the educational and national development of the country. With this, Yani (2003) posited that the concept of reading habit should be on the front burner. This worry is not unfounded in an age of modern information and communication technologies (ICTs), with the proliferation of mobile telephone with Internet access, computers, televisions and video players; it is now becoming uncommon to see children and adolescents carrying books to read; threatening to make cultivation of a good reading habit go with the wind. Students are gradually abandoning book reading to pursue interests in movie watching and recently, surfing and chatting on the net. Whereas, before the advent of these technologies, it was a well-known fact that people spent hours reading books and travelled to lands far away in their minds. The implication of this, according to Liu (2005) is that the growth of electronic media 16 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY may give negative implication to reading as people may become less engaged in extensive reading, thus lacking in the ability to read deeply and sustain a prolonged engagement in reading. However, Ramirez (2003) and Liu (2005) offered that people would print from the Internet in order to engage further reading. They pointed out that the younger generation spends more time reading the screen-based materials while the attraction of availability of a large choice, efficiency, accessibility, low cost, and up-to- date nature of online materials draw teenagers to the Internet. A student who has formed good reading habit would be a perceptual reader. He/she would have the ability to discriminate different objects and shapes such as letters and words, associating basic letter-sound that corresponds with a stimulus-response process. The reader would display intelligence, past experience, motivation, physical alertness, which are some of the many variables in associative reading. He would furthermore display cognition, relating new experiential stimuli to past experiences; comparing, recognising similarities and differences, evaluating and interpreting learning, values and truths in keeping with reality. The reader brings his unique background of experience and understanding to the reading and as he reads and interprets in the light of what he knows, having displayed such distinguishing reading habit characteristics as voluntary reading; what to read; frequency of reading and place of reading. It is the reading habit that will clearly distinguish a reader from a non- reader, marking him as a person who is literate, has gained access to information, has the physical conditions and time to read and further out of his own volition chooses to take the opportunity to do so as a meaningful and rewarding exercise. On the other hand, a non-reader is an individual who has mastered reading skills but decided not to read. No individual, especially secondary school student can fulfill his potential if he does not possess a reading habit. In his autobiography, Gifted Hands, an internationally acclaimed Neurosurgeon Benjamin Carson (as cited by Shabi and Udofia, 2009) challenges young people to evolve a sustainable reading habit. He shared the success story of how he, a non- reader became a fluent veracious reader through the effort of his mother, and the encouragement of the libraries in the locality. Today, he is a strong advocate for the promotion of reading habit among children and adolescent. In essence, becoming a 17 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY reader requires a conscious effort from the individual, though this can be influenced by the environment that the individual finds himself. As Shanker (1993; cited in Kahlenberg and Potter) noted, parents will have a great role to play in this regard since readers are made, not born. No one comes into the world disposed for or against the words in print. A solid foundation for reading habit can be laid by a book-conscious home as parents who set an example by reading themselves are most likely to have children who grow up to become avid readers (Monson and McClenathan, 1983). Children will become readers with greatest ease and lasting effects when they are prepared for it, preferably from birth by daily experience of literature read aloud to them and abundance of books shown to them. Whilst in the process of making readers, parents must allow children to make relatively steady progress toward becoming ever more accomplished readers. The chances are good that children's reading skills will grow in direct proportion to the degree of success and enjoyment they find in books. When this foundation has been laid, peer influence on such individual can only be positive because he would have developed a positive self-esteem that would be difficult to change by a negative peer influence. Dorothy (2002) brought to the fore the negative effects that poor reading habit can have on a student. She pointed out that children with poor reading habit have higher chances of anti-social behaviour as it has been observed that delinquency; school violence, bullying, incidence of hacking computers and even incidence of examination malpractices have a higher correlation with poor reading habit. She however declared that this does not mean that those with poor reading habit display such behaviour, still maintaining that poor reading habit is mainly responsible for such behavioural patterns while good reading habit helps in developing a steady and constructive mind. Furthermore, Fosudo (2010) asserted that poor reading habit can make a child develop poor attitude to school and it can create self-esteem problems later in life. However, some factors have been found to determine the interest that a student can develop in reading. These, according to Radebe (1995) include: socio-economic factors (including home background), availability and suitability of books and the teaching of reading; singling out home background as having the greatest influence on the development of early attitudes towards leisure reading. 18 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Therefore, good reading habit could be considered as a goal-oriented or result- determined and systematically patterned way a student willingly and consistently adopts in his private studies with a view to attaining success in his academic activities. As such it could be regarded as a success-driven device consciously and consistently adopted by a student in his private study engagement in order to achieve excellence in his period of academic tutelage, which he may not be able to achieve without the use of good reading habit. The ultimate result of the cultivation of good reading habit will be academic achievement, which is the precursor to success in life. 2.2 Social media utilisation and secondary school students As the increase in popularity of social media is on a constant rise, (Moreno, Fost and Christakis, 2008) new uses for the technology are continuously being observed. At the forefront of emerging trends in social media sites is the concept of „real time‟ and „location based.‟ Real time allows users to contribute content, which is then broadcast as it is being uploaded - the concept is similar to live television broadcasts. Studies have established it that secondary school students are among the most prolific users of social media, spending a considerable portion of their daily life interacting through these social media (Allen, 2008; Lenhart, Purcell, Smith and Zickuhr, 2010; Ahn, 2011); the current tools which go by a peculiar set of names include Wall Posts, status updates, activity feeds, thumbs ups and profiles. These tools are features of social media sites (SNS) and they include Badoo, BBM, Bebo, BlackPlanet, Classmates, Clixtr, Cyworld, Diigo, Facebook, Foursquare, Fresqui, Flixster, Friendster, Google Talk, Gala Online, Gowalla, Hi5, Habbo, HYves.nl, Ibibo, iWiW, IRC-Galleria, Kaixin001, Linkedin, Meetup, Messenger, Millat, Mixi tagged, myHeritage, Mylife, MySpace, myYearbook, Multiply, kik, snapchat, Naigalonge, nasza-Klasapl, Netlog, NING, Orkut, PerfSpot, Propeller, Reddit, Renren, Skype, SkyRock, Sonico, StudiVZ, Stumble, Technocrat, Tuenti, Twade, Twiki, Twitter, WhatsApp, Werkennetwen, Xing, Yelp, Zorpia and 2go (www.socialmediatoday.com; O‟Reilly, 2007). Twitter blazed the trail for „real time‟ services, where users can broadcast to the world what they are doing, or what is in their minds within a 140 character limit. Facebook followed suit with their „Live Feed‟ where users' activities are streamed as soon as they happen. While Twitter focuses on words, Clixtr, another real time service, focuses on 19 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY group photo sharing where users can update their photo streams with photos while at an event. Friends and nearby users can contribute their own photos and comments to that event stream, thus contributing to the „real time‟ aspect of broadcasting photos and comments as it is being uploaded. In the location based social media space, Foursquare gained popularity as it allowed for users to „check-in‟ to places that they are frequenting at that moment. Gowalla is another such service which functions in much the same way that Foursquare does, leveraging the global positioning system (GPS) in phones to create a location based user experience. Clixtr is furthermore a location based social media site since events created by users are automatically geotagged, and users can view events occurring nearby through the Clixtr iPhone app. Another new entrant into the location-based social media space in the Internet technology is Yelp, which can be accessed through check-ins with their mobile app (Yelp, 2013). Social media sites tend to share some conventional features. Most often, individual users are encouraged to create profiles containing various pieces of information about themselves. Users can upload pictures of themselves to their profiles, post blog entries for others to read, search for other users with similar interests, and compile and share lists of contacts any time of their choice. In addition, user profiles often have a section dedicated to comments from friends and other users. To protect user‟s privacy, social media sites usually have controls that allow users to choose who can view their profile, contact them, add them to their list of contacts, and so on. In recent years, it has furthermore become common for a wide variety of organisations to create profiles to advertise products and services. Some social media have additional features, such as the ability to create groups that share common interests or affiliations, upload or stream live videos, and hold discussions in forums. Geosocial media co-opts Internet mapping services to organise user participation around geographic features and their attributes (Sweney, 2007). Lately, mobile social media has become popular. In most mobile communities, mobile phone users can now create their own profiles, make friends, participate in chat rooms, create chat rooms, hold private conversations, share photos and videos, and share blogs by using their mobile phone. Mobile phone users are basically open to every option that someone sitting on the computer has. Some companies provide wireless services which allow their customers to build their own mobile community and brand it. 20 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Social media are furthermore being used by students as communication tool; because many students are already using a wide-range of social media sites (Ruud, 2013). Within the community of individuals that work with adolescents, both now and in the past, there is a debate regarding the age at which childhood ends and adolescence begins. Near the end of middle childhood, children who have met the developmental tasks have mastered the ability of logical thought, can view situations from varying perspectives and have adopted several strategies for self-regulation (Davies, 2004). He argues further that the onset of puberty is generally considered to be the marker of beginning adolescence, and while the age of on-set varies among boys and girls, puberty traditionally begins between and the ages of eleven and twelve. The hormonal changes that come with the onset of puberty, paired with the internal stress of rapid physical growth as well as sexual maturation and curiosity can make adolescence an especially challenging and volatile time for many youth. During this confusing time, adolescents set out on a search for “sameness”; they want to feel as if they belong and are not alone. Social media are an avenue for this quest allowing adolescents to feel the same as their peers, yet they can furthermore maintain a sense of individuality. In addition to the physical changes that set in during adolescence, Levy-Warren (1996; cited in Brady, n.d) noted that the brain is furthermore triggering many psychological shifts identified as separation and individuation. He furthermore discussed adolescence and its functions as recurring processes that first occur in early childhood, but manifest in adolescence with different functions. Separation in childhood for example, is when a child first discovers that he is unique and separate people from care-givers and other siblings. In adolescence however, separation is a time in which adolescents distinguish themselves and build on the functions of childhood. During separation, adolescents begin to understand that they are no longer the same people they were during childhood: they begin to look different, sound different and interact with their world in a different way. During adolescence, youths learn to be more responsible for themselves and no longer rely on caregivers for tasks like personal hygiene, eating, sleeping, or reminders to do schoolwork. While the tasks of separation occur progressively and throughout the course of adolescence, youths are becoming more autonomous, developing identity, finding intimacy and exploring sexuality (Levy- Warren, 1996; Subrahmanyam and Greenfield, 2008). While many adolescents begin 21 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the tasks of separation, they are furthermore experiencing tasks of individuation which involves movement from the childhood focus of the self to awareness of the self in relationship to others (Levy-Warren, 1996; cited in Brady, n.d). Secondary school students, who have grown into adolescents, begin to develop abstract thought in which they are able to think about how others perceive them and compare that with how they perceive themselves (Erikson, 1993). During individuation, they begin to account for their specific traits such as strengths and weaknesses, fantasies, observations, mental representations of their bodies and its parts, their personalities and their competencies all aiding in their eventual development of self-image (Erikson, 1993; Levy-Warren, 1996; cited in Brady, n.d). The two authors pointed out that in addition to developing self-image in the individuation process, secondary school students furthermore begin to possess the ability to keep a constant and accurate image of events around them. As these students begin to perceive their self-image, they are considering where they want to fit in socially on a quest for „sameness‟. In adolescence, students reach a mind of what Erikson (1993) described as „moratorium‟. In this psychosocial stage of moratorium, he posited that they are on the fragile brink between childhood and adulthood in which they merge the moralities learned in childhood with the perceived ethics to be learned in adulthood. Their mind is an ideological mind that is eager to be confirmed by peers as well as be a part of social ritual. In their search for confirmation and identity development, they are exploring multiple facets before committing to a defined identity and specific roles; for today‟s adolescents, much of this identity development and social exploration is being performed through the use of the Internet (Erikson, 1993; Calvert, 2002; cited in Schmitt, Dayanim and Matthias, 2008). If the major task of adolescence is to resolve the crisis of identity, and the number of secondary school students using the Internet is increasing, would it make sense to infer that they are using the Internet as a form of identity resolution? Valkenburg (2008) defines online identity experiments as the tendency to pretend to be someone else when online. According to a study of students from California, USA public schools, Gross (2004; cited in Akanbi and Theophilus, 2014) reported that over half of the 175 respondents reported that they had pretended on the Internet a couple of times, with 82 22 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY of those responses being related to adolescents claiming they were older in age. While a large number of respondents in Gross‟s study admitted to pretending online, there were several reasons that were given for the presentation of false information. A majority of the respondents who reported to pretending often did so in the presence of another person, most commonly friends, supporting the individuation process of adolescence. Many stated that they pretended to be other persons as a joke; some hid their identity to protect themselves and their privacy while others pretended online to avoid age restrictions of a particular website. He then goes on to speculate that the respondent‟s pretending to be someone older is developmentally specific and related to the exploration of future identity. Out of the respondents, only eleven percent in the study who admitted to pretending online did so in order to seem more appealing to another person. This suggests there are some adolescents who are using the Internet to explore the idea of identity resolution in their search for an authentic self. While Gross‟s study provided insight into how students use the Internet for identity exploration that of Valkenburg (2008) offered an explanation for why the Internet can stimulate online identity experiments for students. First, while technology continues to evolve, the Internet reduces auditory and visual cues allowing and encouraging adolescents to emphasise, conceal or change specific features of themselves. In their search for self, they are therefore exercising their abstract thoughts, considering how their peers will perceive them (Levy-Warren, 1996; cited in Brady, n.d). The reduction of auditory cues that comes with Internet use paired with their quest for peer acceptance creates a lens through which teens change aspects of themselves online. In addition, Internet communication often occurs in social communities that are separate from those in real life, therefore the social repercussions in offline life are reduced, thus encouraging identity experimentation. Valkenburg went on to state that identity experimentation and the number of identities adolescents take on increase because teens start to take on and interact in more relational context. Traditionally, these relational contexts occurred within the family, with peers or at school. However, the Internet and social media expanded these contexts allowing adolescents to become a part of a wide variety of relationships with varying audiences offering an opportunity for further self-discovery and identity development (Valkenburg, 2008). 23 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Access to the Internet has increased students‟ social connectedness and offered opportunity to be part of an increasing variety of relationships. However, this has furthermore opened a window of over-exposure to varying relationships and ideas. Perhaps, increasing doubts about their identity and hindering their ability to form a more stable sense of self (Gergen, 1991). Calvert (2002; cited in Schmitt, Dayanim and Matthias, 2008) while presenting similar ideas about secondary school students and their use of the Internet for identity development, furthermore offered some areas for concern and addressed why they use social media is something to be attentive to. Operating under the definition of developmental psychology that identity is a manner in which individuals are defined focusing on personality characteristics and an internal sense of self, he offers that living within a body impacts the construction of identity. He noted further that people have a biological sex, age, race and other physical features that affect how they perceive themselves and how others perceive and treat them. He further asked who individuals would be if they were no longer constrained by their physical body or their real-life name to present themselves. This notation is the very core of why the Internet and social media are appealing venues for secondary school students. The Internet does not contain the way in which they present themselves. Online, students can alter their physical appearance, alter their biological characteristics such as age and take on identities outside themselves in order to fulfill how they want others to perceive them. He says further that the Internet allows these changes to occur in an anonymous fashion without requiring the individual to leave a physical space that is comforting and familiar. Knowing that the Internet can act as an avenue to alter physical aspects of one‟s identity, there are concerns to be aware of. The Internet can seem like a harmless realm for identity formation to take place. However, there are issues such as deception, identity confusion and the construction of a negative identity through the acting out of antisocial activities to consider. Pretending to be someone else when online can provide the opportunity for children and adolescents to be exploited. The effect of this is that, there is furthermore a concern that identity confusion can occur in which distinguishing their online world from their real-life can become challenging (Calvert, 2002; cited in Schmitt, Dayanim and Matthias, 2008). They pointed out further that if students create an online identity in which they are important to others in their cyber-world but in their 24 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY offline life are less popular amidst their social group, potential risk is presented in that they may begin to have trouble differentiating their worlds. This, according to them, eventually causes the inability to develop stable self-concept influencing identity confusion. Gackenbach and Stackelberg (2007) offered that psychologists believe that each person‟s identity is a composition that reflects different aspects of self, depending on psychological and biological development and history paired with the way one currently experiences his world. They noted that while the ability to integrate the many aspects of self into one fluid identity is traditionally seen as a developmental marker of adulthood, adolescence is a time where the various aspects of self are being explored and possible selves are contemplated. They posited further that sometimes, adolescents explore identities that are radically different as a way to exercise independence and explore autonomy, as well as push limits to understand more fully their boundaries of risk and safety. As the use of the Internet and online identity exploration becomes a social norm among adolescents, research in the field of psychology indicates that the formation of online and offline identities are similar. However, it is not uncommon for individuals to find themselves engaging in situations online that are uncharacteristic on their offline self, a phenomenon that Suler (2004) called disinhibition. Disinhibition is defined as the inability to control impulsive behaviours, thoughts or feelings that manifests online as people communicate in ways that they would not ordinarily do offline (Gackenbach and Stackelberg, 2007). Disinhibited communication experiences can involve individuals engaging in higher levels of self-disclosure that are uncharacteristic of offline life and can generate both positive and appropriate or negative and inappropriate experiences. Suler (2004) argued that disinhibition is not a shift away from the true self, but is rather a representation of the self that is usually hidden in offline life. He explained that disinhibition can work in two forms that are seemingly opposite of each other, naming them benign disinhibition and toxic disinhibition. He gave a categorisation of disinhibition to include benign disinhibition, which can be acts of sharing personal things about the self, revealing secrets, emotions, fears or wishes with another individual. Conversely, toxic disinhibition can be involvement or witnessing of foul language, harsh criticisms, anger, hatred or threats that would not be explored in real life. Benign disinhibition can be understood as a way to better understand and develop 25 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY the self, to resolve interpersonal problems or to explore new emotional or experiential dimensions of identity. No matter the form of Disinhibition, the distinction between the two types can be complex and uncertain (Gackenbach and Stackelberg, 2007). Disinhibition online can give secondary school students the opportunity to develop relationships with predators online, develop a sense of false self due to a blur between offline self and online self, expose adolescents to threats and criticism from peers or simply allow adolescents to engage in healthy identity exploration (Gergen, 1991; Suler, 2004; Gackenbach and Stackelberg, 2007). Whether disinhibition is benign, toxic, or a mix of both, Suler (2004) went further to outline six factors that contribute to the disinhibition effect: dissociative anonymity, invisibility, asynchronicity, solipsistic introjection, dissociative imagination and minimization of status and authority. While user names and e-mail addresses give identification to individuals while online, they often do not reveal much about the user and who they are in their offline life. People can hide some, or even all, of their identity and become someone completely outside themselves when online. He pointed out that the anonymous nature of the Internet gives people the opportunity to separate their actions while online, sometimes with few consequences in their offline life, making the Internet feel safer, less vulnerable and more anonymous for identity exploration and acting out. The online self becomes what he calls a „compartmentalized‟ self, allowing a person to avert responsibility for behaviours online sometimes convincing themselves that those behaviours „aren‟t them at all‟. Many online environments are text driven online communities and even those that are not, such as social media, where users can access posted photos of each other, individuals are still physically invisible when they are online contributing to disinhibition (Suler, 2004). When online, individuals do not have to worry about what they look like or how they sound in that moment, when sending a message. In addition, they do not have to worry about how others look or sound in response. In face-to-face communication, people may avert eye contact when disclosing personal or emotional information but, online this process is built in, making it feel safer. When individuals engage in face-to-face conversation, there is a continuous feedback loop that occurs, fostering moment-to- moment responses and shaping the ongoing flow of information exchange, expression 26 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and self-disclosures; this process is called synchronicity (Suler, 2004). Online, conversations are not occurring in real time. There is a delay between responses allowing an individual‟s train of thought to progress more quickly and deeply thus, it feels safer to put comments out into cyberspace and leave them there. When face-to- face cues become absent in text communication, boundaries that people have with themselves can be altered. While individuals often know what another person‟s voice may sound like, they often experience online messages in their own internal voice. He furthermore pointed out that individuals may furthermore consciously or unconsciously assign a visual image to how they think the message sender looks and behaves. As the internal character becomes a more elaborate and „real‟ person, individuals may carry out online conversations in their offline life fantasizing about flirting, arguing with their boss or confronting a friend about their feelings. Suler equally pointed out that these disinhibited conversations can sometimes unleash powerful psychological issues turning the Internet into the „stage‟ for which users become the players. He posited further that for many Internet users, the separation of online fantasy from real life fact is something that happens quite easily and naturally as they are able to relinquish what happens in make-believe play as having nothing to do with reality. In offline life, individuals who hold authority often express their status and power in the way they dress, body language and environment. Similarly in face-to-face communication, people who view themselves as holding less power often are reluctant to stand before an authority figure and express what they really think. Online, all users potentially start off on a level playing field, no matter their race, gender, socio- economic status or age. Because of this, he says authority status in cyberspace may shift giving those who excel in written communication, self-expression, persistence, idea quality and technological knowledge an advantage. In considering these six factors and knowledge that social connectedness and being a part of a peer group is crucial to adolescents when forming an identity, it is important to be aware of how these aspects can influence a negative self-concept and impact adolescent well-being. While Calvert (2002; cited in Schmitt, Dayanim and Matthias, 2008) presented several areas for concern, Gross (2004; cited in Akanbi and Theophilus, 2014) and Valkenburg (2008) suggested that the Internet can be a useful place for adolescents to develop 27 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY identity. Due to the varying perceptions of the Internet and its influence on students‟ identity formation, it is important to look at how self-esteem and well-being impact on adolescence and whether there are factors that dictate positive versus negative experiences online. However, one issue of concern in the area of social media utilisation is the issue of privacy (Rosenblum, 2007), as users can determine who can have access to their profile. Many social media services, such as Facebook, provide the user with a choice of who can view their profile. This prevents unauthorised user(s) from accessing their information. Parents who want to access their child's MySpace or Facebook account have become a big problem for teenagers who do not want their profile seen by their parents (Barnes, 2006; Knapp, 2006). By making their profile private, users can select who may see their page, allowing only people added as „friends‟ to view their profile and preventing unwanted parents from viewing it. Not only this, the relative freedom afforded by social media services has caused concern regarding the potential of its misuse by individual patrons such as the use of social media services for bullying purposes, online pornography, trolling (Boyd, 2006; Herald Sun, 2008; Wilson, 2010; SMStweet, 2013), and what Derbyshire (2009) termed harming user‟s interpersonal communication by using sites such as Facebook and MySpace. Experts have expressed the concern that such technological fixes such as age verification and scans are relatively ineffective means of apprehending online predators (Mazer, Murphy and Simonds, 2007). A study by Ntui (2014) on ICT use among undergraduates found that the use of mobile devices and social media have significant impact on students‟ study habit. This indicates that a positive and productive use of these resources could promote development of positive reading habit among students. Several studies have looked into the type of use that students make of social media (Morris, Consolvo, Munson, Kramer, Patrick, and Tsai, 2011; Madden and Zickuhr, 2011). Stutzman (2006); Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007); Lockyer and Patterson (2008); Grant (2008); Joinson (2008); Lenhart (2009); Mazman (2011) in their separate studies found that secondary school students use social media for maintaining social relations, sharing information with peers and friends, extension of their personality, find lost contacts, join groups with similar interest, and view and tag photos, share/post photographs, play games. College students in Illinois, United States of America were furthermore found to use 28 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY social media site most prominently to maintain relationship with old friends, and maintain current friendships while the site was furthermore found to provide academic benefits, connecting students from the same classes in order to interact (Ruud, 2013). On the other hand, Whitehouse (2010) found that excessive use of social media could lead to students losing concentration in school and that this could lead to failure in their examination. Ufuophu-Biri and Iwu (2014) furthermore reported a negative use of social media by students of higher learning in Delta State as the students were found to use the media for prostitution. 2.3 Self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation Self-esteem is defined in a study by Wilson, Fornasier and White (2010) as the subjective evaluation a person makes and maintains about himself and the extent of belief in his capability, worth, and significance, which is conveyed through attitudes and verbal behaviour. However, the study found no link between self-esteem and social media use. Valkenburg, Peter and Schouten (2006) in another study found that Facebook enhances social self-esteem measures as perceptions of a user's physical appearance and close relationship. This is especially evident when 'Facebook friends' give positive feedback. Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) furthermore found that users of Facebook with low self-esteem may seek the social opportunities created on Facebook, which creates positive benefits for one's self-esteem. This leads to the conclusion that people who spend longer time online have lower self-esteem and are trying to build a social connection with other users to improve their self-esteem level. According to Mruk (1999; cited in Sternke, 2010), there are three elements of self- esteem. Firstly, there is a connection between competence and worthiness. Secondly, self-esteem is lived on both cognitive and affective levels, and thirdly, self-esteem is a dynamic phenomenon which can fluctuate more than characteristics like personality and intelligence. Self-esteem could be seen as perception rather than reality. It refers to a person‟s belief about whether he/she is intelligent and attractive but does not necessarily say anything about whether the person is actually intelligent and attractive. People‟s beliefs shape their actions in many important ways, and these actions in turn shape their social reality and the social realities of the people around them. Many studies have been conducted to test how the Internet can affect self-esteem with 29 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY different variables. The study of van der Aa, Overbeek, Engels, Scholte, Meerkerk, and Van den Eijnden (2009) focused on the correlation between adolescents‟ daily Internet use and issues of low well-being such as loneliness, low self-esteem and depressive moods. The study discovered that adolescents with lower levels of emotional stability and a higher level of introversion are more likely to develop compulsive Internet use (CIU). The study furthermore found that 99% of the adolescents surveyed actively used the Internet and that 97% of those same adolescents had Internet access at home. It further revealed in the findings that daily Internet use (DIU) in itself, is only marginal and not directly associated with low well-being in adolescence and young adulthood. Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling and Potter (2002) in their study identified two types of self-esteem as conceptualised in psychology. These are global and specific. Global self-esteem incorporates an overall value of self in relation to a multitude of areas that include social, academic, home and personal and is posited to contribute to an individual‟s general psychological well-being (Rosenberg, 1989; cited in Arslan, 2009). Specific self-esteem in contrast only encompasses the value of self in relation to a single area, for example self-esteem of academic performance or body image (Fishbein and Azjen, 1975; cited in Roberto, Shafer and Marmo, 2014). The contested issue, however, is whether or not these two types of self-esteem should be viewed in isolation from each other when attempting to understand the use of social media and self-esteem. In Mehdizadeh's (2010) study, he found a negative correlation between self-esteem and Facebook use. Participants who rated lower on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1989; cited in Arslan, 2009) had a correlation with a greater amount of time spent on Facebook per session and a greater number of Facebook logins per twelve days. Some researchers believe that Facebook use is motivated by two needs, the need to belong and the need for self-presentation as positing that these sites offer a highly controlled environment for self-presentational behaviour, providing an ideal setting for impression management (Mehdizadeh, 2010). Furthermore, individuals who struggle to make social connections in face-to-face interactions may use the Internet as a place to enhance their interpersonal lives by forging social relationships online (Gosling, Augustine, Vazire, Holtzman, and Gaddis, 2011). This outcome can be seen as people with low self-esteem try to create their perfect 'real' world online, where self- presentation can be controlled. 30 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In their study, Manago, Taylor and Greenfields (2012) built on Greenfield's (2009) theory of social change that sees technology as being the driving force in individualism, and perceives performing for an audience as inflating self-esteem. They pointed out that because many people have a large number of friends on Facebook; this facilitates performing for an audience. Therefore, the study predicted a positive correlation between self-esteem and audience size. Their findings showed a significant positive correlation between estimates of audience size and self-esteem, which means larger audiences were associated with higher self-esteem. Kalpidou, Costin and Morris (2011) examined how Facebook use and attitudes toward Facebook related not only to their self-esteem but to variables that measure social, emotional and academic adjustment to college, as well as attachment to the institution. They aimed to find a negative correlation between Facebook use and self-esteem. Participants included 70 undergraduate college students (67 per cent were female), using the Rosenberg Self- Esteem Scale (cited in Arslan, 2009) that found a negative correlation between minutes on Facebook and self-esteem. This suggests that spending a lot of time on Facebook is associated with low self-esteem. Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) found that students with low self-esteem benefit from using Facebook because they expand their social capital, an interpretation that findings by Kalpidou et al (2001) indirectly supported. In Gonzales and Hancocks‟ study (2011), they found that Facebook has a positive effect on self-esteem. Sixty-three participants took part in their study, each participant sat in front of a computer that was either turned off or had the student's Facebook profile. Some of the computers that were off had a mirror beside them while others had no mirror. Participants were told that they had three minutes to look through any of the tabs on their profile page. When the three minutes were up, each participant was given the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (1989; cited in Arslan, 2009). The results showed that the participants who were looking at the mirror showed no elevations in self-esteem. However, the participants who used Facebook showed higher ratings of self-esteem. This shows that being on Facebook boosts self-esteem. The highest reports of self- esteem came from the participants who edited their Facebook profile during the three minutes. This indicates that our ability to select how we present ourselves to others is very important for self-esteem. Their study suggested that self-presentation can have a 31 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY positive influence on self-esteem. This correlates with Mehdizadeh's (2010) study, which states that people with low self-esteem will be more eager to engage in online activities that may raise their self-esteem. In psychology, self-esteem is defined as a person‟s overall self-evaluation of his or her worth. Implicit and explicit self-esteem are sub-types of self-esteem. Implicit self- esteem is an automatic, unconscious self-evaluation; explicit self-esteem is a more conscious, reflective self-evaluation (Wieten, 2010). Regardless of the type of self- esteem, one of the most pervasive facts about this construct is that all humans have a vital need to maintain and/or raise it. Parallel to this line of thought, it can be expected that individuals will strive for positive self-presentations in both online and offline social settings. It is furthermore likely that people with low self-esteem will be even more eager to engage in online activities that may raise their self-esteem. By doing so, it may provide an outlet for the possible self to be expressed. However, with regard to online impression management, Kra¨mer and Winter (2008) did not find any difference between self-presentation, low and high self-esteem users. These contradictory results warrant further research within the emerging field of online self-presentation. Early research on the psychosocial consequences of Internet use indicated that Internet use is detrimental to well-being and is associated with loneliness, depression and stress (Kraut, Kiesler, Boneva, Cummings, Helgeson, and Crawford (2002). Later studies, however, showed that Internet use has a positive impact on people‟s lives, particularly for those who are extraverted. Extraverted Internet users had the tendency to experience decreased loneliness and increased self-esteem, trust in people and community involvement. On the other hand, introverts who frequently use the Internet appeared to experience negative outcomes such as increased loneliness, decreased self-esteem, and less community involvement (Kraut et al., 2002). However, these studies focused on Internet use in general, and did not specifically distinguish between social (e.g. instant messaging, use of social media sites) and non-social (e.g. downloading music, searching for information) types of Internet use. Succeeding studies began to set apart social and non-social types of Internet use. Shaw and Gant (2002) determined the impact of chat room interaction on depression, 32 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY loneliness, self-esteem and perceived social support of undergraduate students. Pre-test, mid-test and post-test measures of each variable were taken, and results showed that participants' depression and loneliness decreased while self-esteem and perceptions of social media as mediating effect of relatedness on Facebook use and self-esteem support increased. It was believed that the anonymity afforded by chatting led to more self-disclosure by easing the burden of social norms for face-to-face interactions. This would explain the increases in self-esteem and perceived social support as an outcome of social Internet use. The researchers noted, however, that unlike the three other variables, self-esteem increased only during the second half of the study. The decreases in depression and loneliness could have given rise to enhanced self-esteem. But it was furthermore proposed that social types of Internet use may influence self-esteem indirectly through mediating variables. The work of Valkenburg, Peter and Schouten (2006) on the relationship of social media sites with adolescent self-esteem and well-being provided evidence of this indirect relationship through an online survey of Dutch adolescents who had profiles on CU2, a popular friend media website in the Netherlands. Results showed that the frequent use of the website is beneficial to adolescents‟ social self-esteem and well-being, although its beneficial effect was indirect. In addition, website use increased the frequency of interactions with friends and the number of reactions to profiles. These reactions or feedbacks were mostly positively toned; and that increased interaction with friends coupled with positive feedback enhanced social self-esteem and well-being. A few of the participants reported received mostly negative feedback, which decreased self- esteem and well-being. The results were suggestive of the users‟ sensitivity to the quality or valence of feedback they received from friends, which could hint at a satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) of relatedness with other people. The satisfaction of the interpersonal needs contributes to positive human functioning, and one of its indicators is an enhanced self-esteem. When a person experiences a sense of belonging and connection with others, that person will have high self-esteem. Relatedness is associated with positive outcomes, such as positive effect, for activities that foster intimate social interactions (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe and Ryan, 2000). Deci and Vansteenkiste (2004) furthermore indicated people‟s inclination towards 33 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY interacting with others whom they do not just feel connected to but whom they furthermore care for. In relating with others, people enjoy social experiences that involve meaningful conversations with others, or reaching out and having fun with significant persons and these experiences can increase their social relatedness (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe and Ryan, 2000). The feeling of being connected with significant people leads to a stronger sense of self, and this relationship can be viewed from the wider perspective of positive psychology. People draw their sense of self from their interpersonal strengths, such as valuing relationships with others and being sensitive to their thoughts and feelings (Seligman, Steen, Park and Peterson, 2005). When Facebook users express their interpersonal strengths to each other through their online interaction, each of them experiences a stronger relatedness, and consequently feels a higher self-esteem. Social media site (SMS) is any website that enables a person to create a public profile to build relationships between him and co-workers, friends, schoolmates and family members. They are web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). Since the first social media site launched in 1997 and currently in use, there are hundreds of SMS across the globe. They support a spectrum of practices, interests and users. The social media site is spreading widely around the world and it is getting more popular. There are many popular social media sites around the world such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, MySpace, Ning, Google Plus+, Tagged, Hi5, Myyearbook, Meetup, Badoo, Bebo, Mylife and Friendster, and others (O‟Reilly, 2007). The uniqueness of social media sites is providing users with the features to present themselves using their profile picture(s) and personality information. It furthermore allows users to express their feelings with friends on the media. Users can furthermore share photos, videos or interesting links with friends to show their kindness. Social media sites are only useful when people are really using them as application to stay connected with friends and family to share experiences, memories, happiness and sadness rather than being dangerously addicted to them. The most social media site 34 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY users were found to be students from high schools and colleges (Kalpidou, Costin and Morris, 2011). This was corroborated by Kim and Davis (2013) who found that college-age users (between 18 and 25 years old) constitute the biggest age group (accounting for approximately 30%) of the total user population and Lee, Sim, Tan and Trevor (2006) who revealed that one-third of the population of Facebook users are college students. Among this category of people, Facebook which was established in 2004 has become a part of their daily activities. The number of friends an individual has on social media site has a positive relationship to social connection which changes his personality from less talking to being open, friendly, and being involved in social activities. It furthermore improves user‟s communication skill. It equally provides technological features that allow users to present their identity with personal information to others such as friends, family members, co-workers or even strangers with opportunities to share status, photos, videos, messaging and more with their friends on the media (Lee, Sim, Tan and Trevor, 2006). There are various reasons why people use the social media. These could include emotional and social connections (Kalpidou, Costin, Morris, 2011). The emotional connection is sharing status which has a connection to user‟s emotion. Whenever a user is sad or happy, he posts a status to share. In return, the user would receive consolatory pieces of advice from friends on the media. Social connection could be sustained by using the Facebook to establish friendship with people met in places like bars, clubs, schools, worship centers, ceremonies, seminars, conferences and the likes by checking their personal information. Therefore, the benefits of using Facebook include having new friends, growing friendship and personality improvement. It furthermore improves the users‟ way of communication. In a survey of over 2,000 university students, Joinson (2008) found suggestive evidence that the primary use of Facebook was for social searching, that is, to find out more information about and make connections with people who they have met briefly offline, in class, or through current friends. Facebook could be beneficial to mental health and wellbeing because its use can help maintain contact with family and friends who might live far away. This allows people to receive emotional support in times of hardship, through a quick and effective technology. It can furthermore reduce feelings of isolation and being „cutoff from the world‟. Facebook can furthermore help some introverts in communicating with others since it provides a 35 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY context in which they are more comfortable to talk and to convey their feelings without much pressure as face-to-face contact (Kim and Davis, 2013). Alexander (2001; cited in Benjamin, Shyngle and Omole, 2013) viewed self-esteem as a syndrome and a set of indicators for mental well-being. The core of self-esteem is an unconditional appreciation of oneself that is an appreciation of both positive and negative potentialities in its fullest sense. An acceptance of this enables us to take responsibility for ourselves and become accountable for our actions. It also means that we can be more realistic about our achievements and shortcomings. Self-esteem can be increased by achieving great successes and maintained by avoiding failures. Raised self-esteem could be achieved and maintained by adopting less ambitious goals. Self- esteem is competence-oriented but furthermore open to change. Alexander (2001; cited in Benjamin, Shyngle and Omole, 2013) furthermore distinguished between trait self- esteem, which reflects confidence or ability in a particular area, such as work or sport, and global self-esteem, which is intrinsic worthiness regardless of what particular abilities or qualities we may have. Rosenberg (1989; cited in Arslan, 2009) furthermore made an important contribution to defining self-esteem by introducing the concept of worthiness. Worthiness is whether a person judge himself as good or bad. It is an evaluative attitude towards oneself and the extent to which the individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful and worthy. He added that self-esteem was important to a person‟s identity and awareness, and that high and low self-esteem would influence behaviour in positive and negative ways respectively. Self-esteem is a lived phenomenon, dynamic, and it is therefore on-going and open to change (Mruk, 1999; cited in Sternke, 2010). Gross (2004; cited in Akanbi and Theophilus, 2014) examined how logging on to a social media where the user did not know the person at the other end affects self-esteem and how they view themselves. The results showed that self-esteem was more positive when a user communicated with another user that he did not know rather than playing an online game. Olowu and Fasola (2012) and Omolayo, Balogun and Omole (2013) investigated the link between the use of Facebook and self-esteem, narcissism and loneliness. They examined if the higher use of Facebook negatively affected self- esteem, narcissism or loneliness and found that on average, users spent an hour on 36 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Facebook daily and, depending on the person, may have had one to five status updates a week. The findings showed that the more students logged on to Facebook, the lower the student's self-esteem. More significantly, narcissism was only positively correlated with the number of friends a user had, while loneliness was positively correlated with usage, updates and a number of friends. Lonely people used the social media website as a way to feel closer to others. Kim and Davis (2013) conducted a study on the problematic Internet use (PIU) and its link to self-esteem, sensation seeking, subjective values and unrealistic optimism. Problematic Internet use is described as Internet activities that are compulsive and have interference with normal activities of daily living. They found a link between PIU and self-esteem because individuals with a lower self-esteem or that have been socially rejected tends to spend more time on the Internet. Students that used the Internet primarily to make friends furthermore have lower self-control and increased level of PIU. Their findings revealed that females were more likely to use the Internet as a way to keep contact with family members while males were more likely to use the Internet for playing online games, become famous or seek romantic partners. Kraut et al (2002) conducted a longitudinal study to determine if Internet usage was beneficial or detrimental. Their results showed that with more Internet use came less family interaction, and a decline of family communication. It furthermore showed that increased Internet use decreased the individual's sense of community and resulted in smaller social support media. With smaller support groups, the participants tended to be more depressed, lonelier, and have more daily stress since they did not have support groups to fall back on. The study conducted by Kratzer, Fetchenhaver and Belschak (2009) was designed to determine if Internet bullying was as prevalent as bullying in person in school aged children. They were interested in learning if victims of cyber bullying were simultaneously victims in other environments such as school or if the victims of cyber bullying were completely different from other types of bullying. They found that some students that are bullying victims at school often use the anonymity of the Internet to become bullies themselves. 37 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY The role of social media and their effects on young adults has largely been ignored in terms of the psychological implications and the impact on quality of relationships. Epstein (2012) canvassed that many researchers have concluded that social ties and interpersonal connections are needed to foster and develop positive social skills. He further stressed and that reciprocal relations promote positive mental health and psychological adjustment. In many ways, social interaction on the Internet resembles that of the traditional face-to-face mode of interaction and enables further accessibility to close relations, prompting overall connectedness and well-being (Bargh, McKenna and Fitzsimons, 2002; cited in Whitty, 2007). However, the authors noted further that the qualities of Internet communication and interaction, such as its greater anonymity, (known to produce greater intimacy and closeness online) do not necessarily demonstrate equally consistent offline results among users. Furthermore, as adolescents begin to use the Internet as a way to reinforce their offline relationships and transform into the most prominent users of the Internet, it is no mystery why they would be avid users of social media sites, like Facebook. Lenhart and Madden (2007) defined social media as “spaces on the Internet where users can create a profile and connect that profile to others to create a personal media.” As they evaluate their demographics, Lenhart and Madden (2007) noted that age is an important factor in understanding social media. Their study noted that 41% of teens between the ages of twelve and thirteen are users of social media sites whereas teens of high school age between fourteen and seventeen responded as 61% being users of social media. Two years later in 2009, those numbers showed significant growth indicating that 55% of teens between twelve and thirteen and 82% of teens between fourteen and seventeen were now users of social media sites (Lenhart, Madden, Smith, Purcell, Zickuhr and Rainie, 2011; Olowu and Fasola, 2012). Social media websites offer various ways for users to communicate with other members, both within and outside their personal friend media (Lenhart and Madden, 2007). Within social media sites, particularly Facebook, there are several functions that allow users to facilitate communication including sending private messages to a single individual or group of users, posting comments on the wall of another user, sending “pokes” or kudos, sharing links, posting photos or giving personal status updates that 38 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY can include a geographic location and names of others who might be in the physical company of the user (Lenhart and Madden, 2007). Lenhart and Madden (2007) presented the viewpoint of several adolescents who participated in a focus group in which they indicated that they associated positive feelings with friends posting on their profile wall. 84% of adolescents surveyed for their study reported that they have engaged in comment posting on their social media sites. They furthermore indicated that one of the major reasons adolescents are using social media sites is because these sites give them the opportunity to plunge themselves into a group of their peers, getting instant feedback and affirmation through the built-in functions of the website. They noted that teens get to feel like they are a part of a group of like-minded friends, and can visualize their media of relationships, displaying their popularity for others in a media. Though the research discussed several of the possible benefits that are linked to the use of the Internet and social media sites for adolescents, there is still a question of why so many teens feel a draw to use them. Although, it is true many adolescents use social media because their friends use them and after all, peer approval and belonging to a friend group is essential to an adolescent‟s well-being however, what is it about social media that keep them engaged and going back for more? Koh and Kim (2003) discussed how cyberspace can serve as a way for individuals to generate a virtual sense of community. They discussed community as being relational or social interactions that bring people together and posited further that cyberspace can act as a forum for those relationships creating a virtual sense of community among users. After completing their research among 172 participants, they concluded that a virtual sense of community has three dimensions: membership, influence and immersion, and that each play a role in generating a sense of belonging in cyberspace. The research indicated that membership is strongly influenced by an individual‟s leadership within an online community; the enjoyability of the interaction and whether the interaction generated an opportunity for offline contact. While Koh and Kim (2003) indicated that cyberspace can generate feelings of belonging and community, Reich (2010) had investigated adolescents‟ sense of community on social media sites. He examined five areas that were present in previous research as well as his own findings. These areas were: membership, influence, integration of needs, shared connection and immersion. He defined membership as a person‟s feeling of belonging and connection 39 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY to a group. In terms of social media, there are no specific factors that defined general membership other than being registered as a user of that site. While there were many participants that reported having a larger number of people in their online friend media, most did not know or interact with those „friends‟ outside the social media site. In addition, however, respondents reported that they used social media to communicate with friends or families that may attend other schools, live outside their area or whose contact information was lost (Reich, 2010). While general membership is one aspect of membership that defines belonging and community within a social media site, there are some aspects, such as emotional safety, that contribute to a psychological sense of community. One aspect of social media membership that influences users and their experience is the feeling of emotional safety within groups online. Reich (2010) uncovered that of the respondents, 25% of high school age participants reported that social media had contributed to problems of some kind within their offline friend group. He found that the most common problems that emerged in the responses were rumour mongering, disloyalty, misunderstandings in which friends felt excluded or romantic partners misinterpreted comments made by their counterparts and escalating problem situations by sharing private information in a public forum or removing friends from their media list. Though there were many respondents in Reich‟s study who reported encountering problems on social media sites, 19% of participants noted that social media sites furthermore helped them to solve problems. The three most common themes that emerged as contributing to proffering solution to problem(s) on social media sites were that social media sites provided a safe space to talk out problems, they offered evidence of what was actually posited because comments are published on profile pages and they furthermore offered a medium for maintaining friendships and keeping in touch (Reich, 2010). Another aspect that Reich (2010) contributed to membership was personal investment. Among the high school age students that participated, 83% reported that they used social media site everyday indicating that users feel a strong draw to use the site, supporting the immersion factor sited by Koh and Kim (2003). In addition, he noted that while time investment was high, emotional investment was low due to the fact that 63% of high school age respondents indicated that they used social media sites as a way 40 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY to fill time when they were bored, implying high membership but low investment. In the area of usage to meet their needs, he found that the sites address the need and facilitate connection among users, as social media sites allow users to stay connected and in tune with what is happening in the lives of their friends and others with whom they may have offline relationships. In addition to staying connected socially, Reich (2010) furthermore found that social media sites provide a way for users to share resources and find common interests. For users in general, he posited social media provide a forum to stay connected, share interests and talents, keep updated on current happenings in their area, generating feelings of group investment, building relationships and facilitating and enhancing the growth of offline friendships. Social media offer a way for adolescents to get connected and stay connected with individuals within and outside their offline friend media and peer groups. The functions that allow adolescents to facilitate communication generate a sense of membership and influence, while providing an avenue for adolescents to meet their need of connection with others. Social media furthermore create a space of safety while furthermore giving users a sense of power and connectedness. Ultimately, social media offer a place for adolescents to make social connections and generate a sense of belonging without demanding a high level of personal investment (Koh and Kim, 2003; Lenhart and Madden, 2007; Reich, 2010). Though these researchers give light to the reasons adolescents are drawn to social media and what it has to offer, it is important to understand the internal processes that are going on during the developmental period of adolescence that causes this group to seek out the presented functions and appeal of social media membership. Koh and Kim (2003) conceptualised influence as the way in which people influence and are influenced by others with a core factor being the demonstrations of power that occur between them. Reich (2010) had investigated and found the level to be apparent in individual users of social media by holding the bulk of the power through their abilities to add, block or delete friends, edit and remove comments from their personal profile and untag photographs they are in. On Facebook specifically, blocking or deleting friends can limit interaction by removing abilities to visit profiles, leave comments, get status updates or reinitiate friendship in the future. Across the studies 41 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY that he reviewed, it appeared that individual users held a lot of influence over others‟ access to their profile and information. However, there was little evidence in the study that suggested others had notable influence on other individual users. Social media (SM) such as Facebook, Orkut, Flickr and LiveJournal, among others have become very popular and continue to grow their user base. Users usually have explicitly labeled friends who are considered to be proximity relationships on the media. Users can choose to create or join a group or community based on common interests, such as affiliations, hobbies, political stands, or religions. They can invite other users to join the same groups. It is commonly believed that close proximity peers, such as friends and friends of friends, have social influence on the joining of a certain group of that node. As in any social media, online or offline, the effect can furthermore be the other way around when people get to know others by virtue of their common interests and memberships in the same groups. These acquaintances then become new social relations. In social media, these new relations may result in links between users and thus new neighbours in the media topology. At least for teenage users, it has been found that the dominant usage pattern is to connect with friends, family, and acquaintances, thereby reinforcing the structural dimensions of peer social worlds that exist in schools; as this is less common for teens to seek out new friends online (boyd, 2007). It is therefore thought as reasonable to assume that most users that are friends with others who joined the same group, are friends first and then join social media groups. Group memberships have been studied in social media analysis as two-mode social media variously referred to as affiliation media, membership media or hyper media, with relations being termed affiliation relation or involvement relation. Affiliation media exhibit a duality of social relations and affiliations. They are two-mode media consisting of subsets of actors, and connections among members of one of the modes that are based on linkages established through the second mode. More precisely, the first mode is a set of actors as usual in social media; the second, additional mode is a set of events, which can be a wide range of specific kinds of social occasions: e.g., social clubs, boards of directors of corporations, university committees. An interesting feature of peer influence media is that (thanks to their dual nature) one can look at 42 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY either part of the media and derive predictions for the other (Wassermann and Faust, 1994). One of the first projects to study the impact on people‟s behaviour and social life was the Digital Youth project. This was a qualitative study by Boyd (2007), which found that there is strong direct peer pressure to join social media among American teenagers in addition to their own feeling of being left out if they do not join. Reasons for not joining vary, but the dominant categories of non-participators seem to be disenfranchised teens with little access to social media, conscientious objectors, and former users. There have been theoretical and empirical studies on group formation and preferential behaviour in online groups. Backstrom, Huttenlocher, Kleinberg and Lan (2006) studied the membership, growth and evolution of large social media. They observed that the tendency of an individual to join a community is influenced by both the number of friends he has within the community, and more crucially how those friends are connected to one another. Another work furthermore by Backstrom et al. (2006) examined the preferential behaviour of Yahoo! Groups. They found that different types of groups produce varying degrees of engagement. Members of a smaller, private group usually have higher engagement than members of a large, public one. The more groups a person belongs to, the less the likelihood that he/she would be heavily involved in all of them. In their study of the influence and correlation in social media, Anagnostopoulos, Kumar and Mahdian (2008) defined several general models that replicate the aforementioned sources of social correlation and proposed simple tests that can identify peer influence as source of social correlation. While these studies have shown the existence of correlation between user actions and peer influence, there is no quantitative study of a large range of social media and characterisation of the social influence of each media. Most of the previous works tried to show the evolution of a certain type of social media. Prior to social media, affiliation media (Wasserman and Faust, 1994) have studied in different contexts, to include memberships on a corporate board of directors, club memberships of a set of community decision makers or elites, and memberships in voluntary organisations. Others include researchers‟ affiliations with academic 43 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY institutions, committees of faculty members, trade partners of major oil exporting nations, high-school clubs, and ceremonial events attended by members of a village. The homogeneity of social media is one of the most striking regularities of group life (Snijders, 2005; de Nooy, Mrvar and Batagelj, 2005; Ripley, Snijders and Preciado1, 2011). Across countless social settings - from high school to college, the workplace to the Internet (Snijders, 2005; Kossinets and Watts, 2006; Rivera, Soderstrom, and Uzzi, 2010) and with respect to a wide variety of personal attributes - from drug use to religious beliefs, political orientation to tastes in music (Snijders, 2005; Steglich, Snijders, and West, 2006; Snijders, van de Bunt, and Steglich, 2010) - friends tend to be much more similar than chance alone would predict. Two mechanisms are most commonly cited as explanations. First, friends may be similar due to social selection homophily: the tendency for like to attract like or similar people to befriend one another (Snijders, 2001; Snijders, van de Bunt, and Steglich, 2010; Ripley, Snijders, and Preciado, 2011). Second, friends may be similar due to peer influence or diffusion: the tendency for characteristics and behaviors to spread through social ties such that friends increasingly resemble one another over time (Feld, 1981; cited in Shen, Monge and Williams, 2014; McPherson, Smith-Lovin and Cook, 2001). Several of these studies have attempted to disentangle these two mechanisms but their respective importance is still poorly understood. On one hand, analytically distinguishing social selection and peer influence requires detailed longitudinal data on social relationships and individual attributes. On the other hand, modeling the joint evolution of media and behaviours is methodologically much more complex than nearly all past work has recognised. Not only should such a model simulate the ongoing, bidirectional causality that is present in the real world, it must furthermore control for a number of confounding mechanisms (e.g., triadic closure, homophily based on other attributes, and alternative causes of behavioural change) to prevent misdiagnosis of selection or influence when another social process is in fact at work (Goodreau, Kitts and Morris, 2009). Using a unique social media dataset (Snijders, 2005) and advances in actor-based modeling (Wimmer and Lewis, 2010), studies have examined the co-evolution of friendships and tastes in music, movies, and books over four years. 44 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.4 Self-esteem and reading habit of secondary school students A student‟s self-esteem could be a reflection of the extent of his engagement with the urge to succeed in his academic life. Students‟ engagement is defined by several scholars as the measure of physical and psychological energy that they are willing to devote to their academic experience, social interaction with their faculty, co-curricular activities and interaction with their peers, (Astin, 1999; Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005; Kuh, 2009) which they considered to be relevant to their success as students. This is the extent to which they are willing to read, in the face of other choices, to the exclusion of other activities (Kamil, 2003). It is important to note that unless a student is well motivated to read, such as seeing reading as giving him a measure of success, there is no way such a student can benefit from a reading exercise. Kamil (2003) in a study on how to improve the literacy of children in grades 4–12 in the United States of America hinted that there are approximately 8.7 million fourth to twelfth graders in America whose chances for academic success are dismal because they are unable to read and comprehend the material in their textbooks. Although no link was established between self-esteem and reading habit in this study, another study by the National Endowments for the Arts (2007) established that there was a decline in the reading habit of young Americans; arguing that a correlate exists between reading for pleasure and academic achievement. Reading, as a basic tool of education (Mokatsi, 2005) is not only about enjoyment but a necessity; as it opens a vista to a better understanding of one‟s own experiences as well as being an exciting voyage to self-discovery (Panigrahi and Panda, 1996; cited in Igbokwe, Obidike and Ezeji, 2012; Eyre, 2005). As the art of interpreting printed and written words, it is the most effective process of conscious learning, which influences the extent and accuracy of information as well as the attitudes, morals, beliefs, judgement and action of a reader (Devarajan and Gray in Panigrahi and Panda, 1996; cited in Igbokwe, Obidike and Ezeji, 2012). James and Nightingale (2005) outlined some of the most constructive arguments for the significance of examining how self-esteem influences student learning. According to them, self-esteem appears to have implications for academic, social as well as personal characters of an individual. These three indicators, in relation to self-esteem is due to the fact that global self-esteem, as outlined by Rosenberg, Schoenbach and Rosenberg 45 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (1995; cited in Chedrauia, Pérez-López, Mendoza, Leimberg, Martinez, Vallarino and Hidalgo, 2010), encompasses self-esteem that is influenced by a variety of factors, many of which fall into these three levels (James and Nightingale, 2005). The first level constitutes an individual‟s ability to identify, and if necessary, improve his strengths and weaknesses in reading. This is because an individual with a positive self-esteem may see weaknesses as being obstacles towards an end goal and as such, needs to be corrected in order to satisfy and maintain a positive self-esteem. A student with a positive level of self-esteem who has failed a course for instance, may experience psychological pain due to this failure. In attempts to assuage the pain brought by the failure, the student would have to put in extra effort in order to pass the course the next time round, so as to restore the positive level of self-esteem and the good feelings it encompasses. Similarly, Crocker (2006) maintained that since increases in self-esteem are seen as pleasurable and decreases in self-esteem as painful, the individual may become protective over the enhancement of a positive self-esteem, such as through engaging in more learning strategies, thereby achieving a superseding goal (example, passing a course). Cunningham, Wang and Bishop (2006) viewed this protective nature of students as the motivation that students regain in relation to learning. According to their study, self-esteem in students proved to have a significant relationship to the motivations to learn as they believe that the positive levels of self-esteem, formed as a result of academic achievement, would lead to the desire to maintain this value of self by increasing or creating the motivation to learn. Therefore the significance of self- esteem in relation to its influence on the academic level is predominantly that self- esteem levels are posited to enhance or exacerbate students learning behaviours (James and Nightingale, 2005). At the second level at which self-esteem is seen to affect an individual‟s learning process, the social level, two interlinked arguments were raised (James and Nightingale, 2005). The first concerns how self-esteem influences the degree to which the individual engages in social groups (that is, peer groups, tutoring groups, debate groups and so on), as well as the manner in which they are perceived in these media resulting in possible group exclusion (James and Nightingale, 2005). Individuals with a 46 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY negative self-esteem may struggle to apply themselves socially in a group which may be vital, should the group pose valuable in terms of learning. For instance in social groups that provide space for learning, the individuals, because of perceiving themselves as being inadequate, would shy away from valuable learning experiences such as when debates are being organised. This then becomes an invaluable encounter as it provides one with the ability to process information strategically, as well as being able to select important information from a body of knowledge (furthermore known as the selection of main ideas learning strategy). Thirdly, beyond the academic/professional and social levels rests an equally important one that incorporates the greater sense of self, the personal level. Here, James and Nightingale (2005) in their study examined how learning becomes an influential factor in self-esteem in that it impacts on one‟s self-efficacy and sense of purpose. According to their understanding, learning have positive impact on an individual‟s self-esteem, particularly with regards to sense of capability or efficacy, sense of purpose, experience of flow or fulfillment, sense of responsibility and accountability and sense of belonging. A student who incorporates and utilises appropriate learning strategies may find that he experiences all round satisfaction with the effort and progress made (Greenfield, 2009). This satisfaction and progress as a result of goal achievement (that is, sufficiently learning for a course and passing) increases his self-esteem levels. Once increased levels of self-esteem are achieved, the student may attempt to maintain this good feeling by keeping his self-esteem levels consistent through the continued use of learning strategies (Crocker, 2006). Hence, the examination of learning strategies in relation to self-esteem proves pertinent as positive self-esteem, as depicted here, was shown to encourage the use of learning strategies in efforts to maintain one‟s sense of efficacy. 2.5 Peer influence and reading habit of secondary school students The development of reading habit among secondary school students has been found to be related to the type of influence that peers exert on one another. According to Majid and Tan (2007) an individual engages in reading activities due to several factors; as reading habit has been the passion of the greatest personalities of all times. Human beings have been reading since ages and thus words of knowledge have been passed on 47 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY through generations. A study of young people in Britain, aged between 11 and 18 years, found that peer influence was the top most reason for reading books (Market and Opinion Research International - MORI, 2004). The implication of this is that students can be attracted to reading when they observe their peers doing same. Other studies have furthermore established the influence of peer on what students read. Steffensen and Weinreich (2000) in their study established a distinction between what some Danish boys and girls prefer to read. Boys were found to prefer reading books on suspense, humour, thrillers and history while girls preferred to read realistic books, fairytales and fantasy stories. Equally, Sturm (2003) found in a study conducted among boys and girls in North Carolina, USA that boys preferred to seek information on sports, transportation and military topics as against girls that enjoyed reading about arts and crafts, health, fashion and beauty. Furthermore, an earlier study by Balasundram (1991; cited in Majid and Tan, 2007) in Singapore established that boys preferred to read adventure stories while girls preferred mystery and fairytales. The import of this is that it is established that peer play a role in the cultivation of reading habit, as they influence one another on what to read. There is a paucity of literature on the amount of influence that peer exert on one another in Nigeria as not much empirical studies were found to have been conducted in this area. However, it can be safely argued that since students, wherever they may be, share certain characteristics; Nigerian students can furthermore exert influence on one another, especially in the area of reading. Arguably, since part of the reasons for reading by students is to pass examinations, the tendency is for them to influence one another to engage in serious academic reading exercise, considering that peers influence one another in some other areas (Makgosa and Mohube, 2007). Furthermore, Palmer (1995) in a study conducted among library users found recommendation from friends as one of the motivating factors for reading a book. This underscores the important role that peers play on reading by students. Geyser (1986) and Irvin (1998) furthermore advanced reasons why students engage in reading to include being seeing by peers to be reading, reading preference and seeking peers that fall within the category of their study need. Chen (2007) furthermore underscored the influence of peers on reading habit as he pointed out that boys in Taiwan considered reading as being related to girls‟ activities. 48 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.6 Social media utilisation and reading habit of secondary school students Several studies have established that the use of social media by students has the capacity to make them more engaged. Although these studies were conducted among students of higher institutions, it was established that a correlate exists between the use of information and communication technology and students‟ academic performance (King and Robinson, 2009; Annetta, Minogue, Holmes and Cheng, 2009; Chen, Lambert and Guidry, 2010). Reading habit has been the object of empirical and theoretical investigations. Studies in the area of reading habit come from various academic disciplines including library information science (LIS), education, social science, and recently information systems. Studies have established that the amount of reading impacts on reading achievement and educational attainment and furthermore increase general knowledge, social skills, and community participation (Cunningham and Stanovich, 2001). The researchers furthermore established that it helps children; especially those with lower levels of cognitive ability compensate their deficiency by building their vocabulary and general knowledge. Findings about reading habit contribute significantly to how library provides its services, how teaching students to read can be made more effective, and how web site and system design can be made more useful and user friendly. Blackwood (1991; cited in Lone, 2012) studied the pleasure reading habit of 333 college seniors enrolled at a small, public, US Liberal Arts University. The findings indicated that the majority was reading for pleasure-reading primarily newspapers and most of them were reported to spend more time reading during vacations than when classes were in session. Both male and female students reported reading for pleasure about 2.5 hours each week while classes were in session and slightly more during vacations. In another study, Sheorey and Mokhtari (1994; cited in Lone, 2011) examined the reading habit of 85 college students enrolled in an elective development reading course at a large university in the Midwestern USA. They reported that students read an average of 4.75 hours per week. Student who scored higher on a test of reading comprehension reported spending slightly more time on non-academic reading. Gallik (1999) found that magazines were the popular type of reading material for pleasure reading and are reported to be read frequently by 75 percent of the college students. 49 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Among other findings, Pandian (2000) reported that about 80 percent of Malaysian university students are reluctant readers of both English and Malay materials. Ethnicity, home environment, reading models, gender and school environment are important indicators of reading. Students from the urban areas are found to be reading more than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, Pandian (2000) furthermore came up with profile habitual readers in different languages namely English, Malay, Chinese, and Tamil. The emergence of the new digital environment has furthermore captured the interest of many researchers. With the growing amount of digital information available, people particularly young adults are found spending more time reading electronic materials (Ramirez, 2003; Liu, 2005). A growing amount of reading time is spent more on skimming and browsing for information on the Internet. Beach and Lundell (1998; cited in Winterwood, 2010) in their report on studies of seventh-grade students working on computers, observed that students engaged in computer-mediated communication (CMC), such as e-mail, posting messages, online chats and, learned literacy skills through social exchanges. On the other hand, the nature and purpose of reading seem to be deviating as well from the traditional reading methods, which are brief, linear and less structured. Some researchers argued that the growth of electronic media may give negative implication to the fact that people are less engaged in extensive reading and lack the ability to read deeply and to sustain a prolonged engagement in reading (Liu, 2005). Others argued that people still prefer printed documents when it comes to reading. Both Liu (2005) and Ramirez (2003) provided evidence that people would print from the Internet in order to engage further reading. Liu furthermore provided the evidence that the age factor contributes to reading behaviour on the Internet. In addition, younger people can tolerate more time reading the screen-based materials. Attitude towards reading is defined as an individual‟s feeling about reading – causing learners to approach or avoid a reading situation (Alexander and Filler, 1976). Attitude and interest towards reading can be related in association with feeling and with the learners‟ spirit to learn or in this situation it can be best posited with the readers‟ spirit to read. 50 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Positive reading attitudes lead to positive reading experiences, which furthermore lead to higher academic performance. Some recent studies focused on identifying what influence the development of positive attitudes towards reading in secondary school (Walberg and Tsai, 1985; Bintz, 1993 cited in M. Lesley, 2011). Walberg and Tsai (1985) concluded that a positive attitude towards reading is one of the strongest correlates of reading achievement. Factors that contributed to a positive attitude among adolescents included: believing that reading is important; enjoying reading; having a high self-concept as a reader; and having a verbally stimulating home environment where verbal interaction takes place regularly. One study (Kubis, 1996; cited in Annamalai and Muniandy) indicated that students attribute their positive attitudes towards reading to a significant event or person. He noted that, generally, students who were read to as children and who owned personal book collections exhibited more positive attitudes towards reading than those who did not. Families of students with positive attitudes towards reading received more magazines than families of those with negative attitudes. Families play an important role in creating a positive reading attitude toward the children. A home literary environment created by the parent can influence their children feelings towards reading. A study by Partin (2002) on the relationship between positive adolescent attitudes towards reading and home environments showed that attitude scores for the 40 students with most positive attitudes towards reading ranged from 92 to 125 points and for the students with negative scores from 25 to 57 points. Among the students with positive attitudes, 34 reported being read to often as a child while 6 posited they remembered being read to sometimes. The results showed that a positive reading attitude of students is significantly related to and fostered by the following literary environment: being read to as a child; parental interest in their child‟s reading; having books around the home; receiving books as gifts; and possessing a library card. Having friends who like to read and with whom they can discuss and recommend books furthermore correlated significantly with positive attitudes. Further, in the past, undergraduates relied heavily on print materials such as newspaper for information because they help to create and improve reading habit, knowledge, and awareness. They can be part of a good reading habit for students in any area of 51 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY specialisation (Kumar, Singh and Siddiqui, 2011). Most recently, there have been worrisome observations about the reading habit of the teaming population in some countries in Africa and some parts of the world. Bobda (2011) while investigating the reading habit of some postgraduate high school student-teachers in Yaoundé stated that the lack of reading in Africa and specifically in Cameroun is a phenomenon often decried in popular opinion. Arua (2011) investigated the influence of teachers on students‟ leisure reading habit with a view to finding solution to the contentious view that Botswana does not have a reading culture. Ibode and Isiugo-Abanihe (2011) in their study on redressing poor reading habit among youths in Nigeria lamented the phenomenon of poor reading culture, especially among the youths in the country. The study investigated the extent to which teachers in the secondary schools in South-West are implementing research-based strategies for improving reading culture among youths. Earlier in the United States, the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) published a report in 2009, which focused on literary reading for leisure and suggested that young Americans aged 18–24 had undergone a particularly inspiring transformation from a 20 percent decline in 2002 to a 21 percent increase in 2008 in their reading habit (Cull, 2011). The onset of information technology in the world over and Nigeria in particular, has revolutionised the reading habit of students. On the one hand, the new technology has enhanced students‟ learning experiences as it has created platforms for them to interact with the world and media socially all round the world. Cull (2011) is of the view that while the Internet is a text-saturated world, reading online screens tends to be significantly different from reading printed text. In the study, he reviewed literature from a variety of disciplines on the technological, social, behavioural, and neuro- scientific impacts that the Internet is having on the practice of reading. A particular focus was given to the reading behaviour of emerging university students, especially within Canada and the United States. A brief overview was provided of the recent transformation of academic libraries into providers of online digital text in addition to printed books and other materials. On the other hand, it seems it has had some negative effects on their reading habit. Instead of people reading books, they now listen to people talk on You Tube, Facebook etcetera, so they do not feel the need to read any longer. A survey carried out by Book Aid International (in Sonaike, 2004) found out 52 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY that children in developed countries read for relaxation, while a majority of children in developing countries read for examinations. The fact that a nation cannot rise above its literacy level, makes it imperative to determine the influence the use of Internet is having over the reading habit of students in Nigeria and this is what this study investigated. It can be seen from the review of the literature that there is the worrisome phenomenon of poor reading habit of students coupled with the fact that Internet use by students has negatively impacted the reading habit of young people, especially in secondary schools. 2.7 School type and secondary school students’ reading habit Not much is known yet whether the type of school that a student attends has a significant role on the reading habit of such student, as there is a paucity of research on this area. In Turkey, Baş (2012) found this variable to have significant effect on the reading habit of secondary school students. This was established in a study conducted among private school students who were found to have better attitude to reading than those of public schools. Earlier studies conducted in the same country by Anastasiadou (2009) and Ünal (2010) had furthermore established similar findings. Diem (2012) furthermore found a difference in the reading habit of secondary school students in South Sumatra, Republic of Indonesia based on his categorisation of the schools as A, B and C. He categorised type A (industrial/occupational school), type B as (anatolian school) and type C as (science high school). At a higher level of study, this time among university students in Pakistan, using students on open (non-formal) and regular (formal) university systems Bajwa, Gujjar, Shaheen and Ramzan (2011) found that text book reading was better among students of non-formal education than those of counterparts undergoing formal education. This could be an indication that the students had developed a reading habit right from their secondary school days. However, Chand (2013) in a study on reading habit among government and private secondary school students in India found no significant difference in their reading habit. 2.8 Theoretical framework In order to have a better and deeper understanding of the correlating factors of self- esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation on reading habit of senior secondary 53 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY school two students in Oyo State, this study adapted three theories as they relate to self- esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation. The growth of secondary school students in relation to their academic pursuit requires that they develop the habit for reading in order for them to achieve success in their endeavour. Leary‟s (2005) Sociometer Theory posited self-esteem as a measure of effectiveness in social relations and interactions that monitors acceptance and/or rejection from others. The theory placed an emphasis on the degree to which a person regards his or her relationship with another (relational value) and how this affects his perception of himself. Where a person is deemed to have relational value, he is more likely to have higher self-esteem. The theory is found relevant to this study as the current exercise is partly on Senior Secondary School students‟ self-esteem, especially in the area of establishing the correlation between self-esteem and the cultivation of reading habit as well as the relationship that exists between self-esteem and social media utilisation by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Investigating the self-esteem of the respondents becomes imperative as each of the respondents is likely to feel the need to „belong‟ among his contemporaries. There could also be connectivity between the influence that peers exert on one another, in view of the social control theory, which Hirschi (2002) said was critical in the area of peer influence research. This theory views peer influences as a result of an individual‟s social bonds with others in their world. The social bond plays an important role in social control theory and consists of four main components: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. Social control theory views attachment as the most important element in predicting students‟ habit, making the assumption that without a secure attachment to others, an individual is left with a lack of moral values or conscience (Hirschi, 2004). This is largely due to the idea that an individual‟s main source of control is derived from concern for others‟ opinions, and that without such a social bond, this concern for others‟ opinions would be absent. The implication of this is that if one is attached to friends who do not have good reading habit, then, he or she is less likely to develop a good reading habit, a concept which is echoed in the social development model. Hirschi (2002) suggested that there is a prominent link between attachment and beliefs, and explained that when students respect their friends and have 54 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY a secure attachment to them, they are more willing to accept their rules and share their beliefs, a predisposing factor to developing a good reading habit. This leads to the reason why secondary school students may indulge in the use of social media. One theory that has been variously adopted and adapted by scholars while working on different studies is the Theory of Reasoned Action. This theory first propounded by Fishbein and Azjen (1975) and Azjen and Fishbein (1980) posited that behaviour is directly determined by intention. This theory used a single framework to predict and understand virtually all human behaviour. According to the theory, a person's intention to engage in a behaviour is a function of his or her attitudes toward that behaviour, as well as his or her subjective norms regarding that behaviour, pointing out that attitudes toward a behaviour are determined by salient beliefs about the outcomes of the behaviour, and subjective norms are determined by normative beliefs, that is, the perceived beliefs of specific individuals about performing the behaviour. Those that have applied the theory to their various studies on a wide variety of behaviours include Morrison, Golder, Keller and Gillmore‟s (2002) study on marijuana use; Jones, Sundaram and Chin‟s (2002) study on automation technology use; Syrjala, Miskanen and Knuuttila‟s (2002) study on tooth brushing; and Codd and Cohen‟s (2003) study on seeking help for alcohol abuse. As such this theory is considered for this study since the interest here is to find out why students use social media. Social media scholars explain why people create, maintain, dissolve, and possibly reconstitute media ties, and who is likely to form ties with whom. There are multiple schools of thought or „families of theories‟ (Monge and Contractor, 2003) within the media perspective that approach this question from different vantage points. These include theories of self-interest, theories of social exchange or dependency, theories of mutual or collective interest, cognitive theories, and theories of homophily. There is a large school of media researchers who come from a rational self-interest paradigm. These scholars assume that people form dyadic and group ties in order to maximise their personal preferences and desires. The rational self-interest school within media research can be traced back to the work of sociologist Coleman (1988) where he demonstrated how, from two-actor interactions, with each actor operating out of self- interest, emerges the basis for a social system (such as a small group). While each actor 55 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY is trying to maximise his or her individual interests, each is at the same time constrained because he or she is embedded in an interdependent relationship with the other. That relationship imposes limits on both actors‟ behaviour and regulates the extent of self-seeking. These limits are counterbalanced by the increased access to resources each actor gets via the other. Individuals consider the creation of ties as an investment in the accumulation of social resources or social capital. Social capital is the totality of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual or group by virtue of possessing a durable media of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992). A second school of media researchers draws upon theories of Social Exchange and Dependency. Homans (1950), a forebear of the Social Exchange school asserted that people establish ties to others with whom they can exchange valued resources but pointed out that whether a relationship will be sustained over time will depend on the payoffs to each of the two parties. Emerson (1972a, 1972b) enlarged the focus of exchange theory to look beyond the pair at the media of relationships in which the duo is embedded. He examined exchanges and power dependence at both the inter- individual and inter-group levels and argued that when individuals or groups exchange valued resources, this is made possible due to a large scale media of relationships. A third theory drew on theories of mutual interest and collective action with its main premise being that mutual interests and the possibility of benefits from coordinated action (Marwell and Oliver, 1993) often outweigh individual self-interests. Public Goods Theory first articulated by Samuelson (1954), is one of the best developed theories of collective action , which more recently, has been extended to explain the collective production and ownership of intellectual property (e.g. ideas, documents, decisions), such as that developed by small groups (Lessig, 2001). 2.9 Conceptual model This study considered three theoretical approaches but it was discovered that gaps still existed as there were no provisions for correlation among self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation on reading habit of Senior Secondary school students. As such a conceptual framework was developed to provide the platform to investigate the variables of this study. The conceptual model in figure 2.2 shows how the study was 56 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY carried out. It established links between the dependent variable: reading habit of Senior Secondary school II students in Oyo State and the independent variables: self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation, of the study and the joint influence of the independent variables on the dependent variable. Self-esteem of Senior Secondary School students  High self-esteem  Low self-esteem Reading habit of Peer influence on Senior Senior Secondary Secondary School students School students  High influence  Low influence  Reading for academic purpose  Reading to acquire Social media utilisation by information Senior Secondary School  Reading for self- students development  Find community of interest  Socialise with contacts  Make new friends  Reading  Have leisure/fun/entertainment  Source for news  Pass away time  Play games Fig. 2.1: Conceptual model for the study Source: Self-developed by the researcher 2.10 Appraisal of the literature reviewed The literature reviewed assisted the researcher to put the subject of investigation; „the correlate of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation on reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State‟ in perspective. The larger part of the literature reviewed was aided by texts, journals, articles, online resources and conference proceedings. Although it was established through literature that a correlate existed between self-esteem and social media utilisation, especially among people with low self-esteem who were looking for avenues to „belong‟, literature was not able to 57 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY establish if such is the case with secondary school students with regards to their reading habit. In the area of peer influence and social media utilisation, it was established through literature that there is a growing influence among adolescents in the use of social media and the preponderance of the feeling to belong to an online community but there was no indication on the correlate that exists between peer influence, social media utilisation and the reading habit of secondary school students. The literature reviewed furthermore established that such factors as social media utilisation, self-esteem and peer influence play influential roles on reading habit of adolescents. Although, these have to do with students reading through information and communication technology (ICT) resources, however, it has not been established through literature how these factors influence reading habit of Senior Secondary school students particularly in the area of reading print materials as against engaging in reading through electronic means. However, it is evident from the reviews that there is a paucity of literature on the subject of investigation in Nigeria due to the fact that the research on the subject is just emerging in the country. This has given rise to some gaps that exist in the reviewed literature. One of these gaps is that none of the reviewed works concentrated on the correlates of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation on reading habit of Senior Secondary school students. Furthermore, the type of social media best utilised by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State has not been investigated. It is these identified gaps that this research intends to fill. 58 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter focused on the research design, population of the study, sampling technique and sample, research instrument, validation and reliability of instrument, data collection procedure and methods of data analysis. 3.1 Research design This study adopted survey design of the correlational type (Howell, Sullivan, Conley and Ray Carlberg, 2007). This design is used to examine if changes in one or more variable are related to changes in another variable (Sousa, Driessnack and Mendes, 2007). This type was adopted to systematically describe the facts, qualities and characteristics of the population of the study as factually as possible to obtain reliable information about the variables without any manipulation. 3.2 Population of the study The population for this study comprised all Senior Secondary School II students (SS II) spread across the 529 public and 247 private schools in Oyo State, with a total population of 84,042 (Teaching Service Commission and Ministry of Education, Oyo State, 2014) (Details of the study population are in Appendix 1V). Senior Secondary school II students were selected because they are in the penultimate class of their programme, thus their reading habit is expected to be encouraging. Not only this, they are preparing for the national external examinations, as such they are expected to have enough time to respond to the research questionnaire. 3.3 Sampling technique and sample A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted for this study due to the fact that the population of the study was heterogeneous and there was the need to ensure accuracy in the measurement of the sample population (Ogundipe, Lucas and Sanni, 2006). At the first stage, stratified sampling technique was employed in the stratification of the state into 3 senatorial districts, to cover the three existing senatorial districts in Oyo State 59 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY (Tejumaye, 2003). These are: Oyo North (13 local government areas), Oyo Central (11 local government areas) and Oyo South (9 local governments), giving a total of 33 local government areas (See Appendix IV). In the second stage, a random sampling technique (Teddlie and Yu, 2007) was employed to select 50% of the local government areas from each of the three districts in the state. This made 18 local government areas in all (See Appendixes II and V). A random sampling technique, using the balloting system was employed at the third stage to select four public and four private Senior Secondary schools from 16 out of the 18 selected local government areas while four public and two private schools were selected from the remaining two local government areas. This was due to the fact these two local government areas (Iwajowa and Atisbo) did not have private secondary schools more than those two (See Appendixes II and III) (Food and Agricultural Organisation, FAO, 1999; cited in Government of India, 2011). At the fourth stage, a purposive sampling technique was employed to select Senior Secondary school II students across the 140 schools used for the study (see Appendix II). The SS II students were selected because they are in the penultimate class and were not preparing for any external national examinations, making them readily available to respond to the research instrument. At the fifth stage, a systematic random sampling technique was employed (Tejumaye, 2003). A class register was obtained in each of the schools sampled and an arm of the class was picked to select 20 students for sampling. Where the students were not up to 20 all the students found in the class were sampled. This made a total of 2,767 students sampled (see Appendix III). 3.4 Instrument The instrument used to collect data for the study was a structured questionnaire, divided into five sections: A-E (see Appendix IV). The five sections were developed as follows: i. Section A: Demographic variables of the respondents This section dealt with the demographic variables of the respondents. It has 6 items (See Appendix I, Section A) 60 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY ii. Section B: Self-esteem Scale (SES) The self-esteem questionnaire developed by Rosenberg (1989; cited in Arslan, 2009) was adapted to measure the level of Senior Secondary School students‟ self-esteem in this study. The original version has 10 items, while the researcher further developed 9 more items to make up 19 items, which were used to collect data for this study. A 4- point Likert-type scale of Strongly disagree (SD) = 1, Disagree (D) =2, Agree (A) =3 and Strongly agree (SA) = 4 was adapted to measure the construct for positive items and for negative items, vice versa (see Appendix I, Section B). iii. Section C: Peer Influence Scale (PIS) A peer influence scale designed by Clasen and Brown (1985; cited in Mukama, 2008), which deals with peer influence was adapted for this section. The scale has 22 items while the adapted scale has 12 items with a 3-point Likert-type scale of Highly influenced (HI) = 3, Influenced (I) = 2 and Not influenced (NI) = 1 (See Appendix I, Section C). iv. Section D: Social Media Utilisation Scale (SMUS) The scale was developed by the researcher. It has 40 items with an adapted 4-point Likert-type scale of Strongly disagree (SD) = 1, Disagree (D) =2 , Agree (A) =3 and Strongly agree (SA) = 4 on use; and Never used (NU) =1, Occasionally used (OU) = 2, Seldomly used (SU) =3 and Mostly used (MU) = 4 on frequency of use based on the social media utilisation of the respondents. The scale on social media utilisation comprised three sub-scales viz: purpose of utilisation, means of utilisation, and most used social media. The purpose of utilisation scale has 8 items measured on a 4-point Likert-type scale of Strongly disagree (SD) = 1, Disagree (D) =2, Agree (A) =3 and Strongly agree (SA) = 4. The means of utilisation has 7 items measured on a 4-point Likert-type scale of Strongly disagree (SD) = 1, Disagree (D) =2, Agree (A) =3 and Strongly agree (SA) = 4. The most used scale has 25 items measured on a 4-point Likert-type scale of Never used (NU) = 1, Occasionally used (OU) = 2, Seldomly used (SU) = 3 and Mostly used (MU) = 4 for positive items and for negative items, vice versa (See Appendix I, Section D). 61 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY v. Section E: Reading Habit Scale (RHS) The reading habit (RH) scale was developed by the researcher. It has 40 items. A 4- point Likert-type scale of Strongly disagree (SD) = 1, Disagree (D) =2, Agree (A) =3 and Strongly agree (SA) = 4 was adapted to measure the reading habit of the respondents for positive items and for negative items, vice versa (see Appendix I, Section E). 3.5 Validation and reliability of instrument The instrument was given to experts in media technology at the Centre for Educational Media Resource Studies, Faculty of Education and English language, Faculty of Arts both of the University of Ibadan for proper scrutiny. Based on their suggestions and criticisms, items in the instrument were modified for the suitability and appropriateness of the study. Furthermore, a trial testing of the instrument was carried out on 40 students (20 each from a public and private school) apart from those used for the main study to determine its internal consistency (reliability). The data collected were analysed and subjected to Cronbach Alpha. The following results were obtained, which was found adequate and appropriate for the study (Table 3.1). Table 3.1: Reliability level of the instrument Variables No of items Reliability SES 19 0.79 PIS 12 0.75 SMUS 40 0.76 RHS: i. Purpose 06 0.80 ii. Mannerism 06 0.75 iii. Pattern 07 0.70 iv. Types 16 0.65 v. Frequency 05 0.79 62 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3.6 Data collection procedure A letter which introduced the researcher to principals of the schools sampled was obtained from the Centre for Educational Media Resource Studies (Appendix VIII). Thereafter, the researcher had a preliminary visit to the schools involved in the study to solicit for the permission of the school authority to administer the questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed to the respondents with the assistance of 9 trained research assistants who were engaged by the researcher. The assistants were monitored by the researcher during the administration of the questionnaire to ensure that they were properly administered. The administration lasted for three months. Out of the 2,767 copies of the questionnaire distributed, 2,623 copies were retrieved; representing 95% (see Appendix VII). Out of these, 2,468 copies were found to be valid for analysis. This represents 94% of the retrieved questionnaire. One hundred and seventy-seven copies of the questionnaire that were considered invalid were wrongly filled by the respondents. 3.7 Methods of data analysis Frequency, simple percentage, and mean standard deviation technique were employed to analyse and provide answers to research questions 1 – 6; while Pearson Product Moment correlation and Multiple Regression were employed to analyse and provide answers to research questions 7– 10. 63 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The data collected were analysed based on the demographic variables of the respondents and the research questions answered in the study. 4.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents The demographic characteristics of the respondents were analysed and shown in Tables 4.1 and 4.2: Table 4.1: Distribution of the respondents by sex Sex Frequency Percentage Male 1,219 49.4 Female 1,249 50.6 Total 2,468 100.0 Table 4.1 shows that 1,219 (49.4%) of the respondents were males while females were 1,249 (50.6%). This implies that the majority of the respondents were females. Table 4.2: Distribution of the respondents by class Class Frequency Percentage Arts 717 29.1 Science 1,169 47.4 Commercial 582 23.6 Total 2,468 100.0 Table 4.2 that 717 (29.1%), 1,169 (47.4%) and 582 (23.6%) of the respondents were in Arts, Sciences and Commercial classes respectively. This connotes that majority of the respondents were in Science class. 64 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.2 Data analysis based on the research questions The study answered 10 research questions, for which data were collected. Research question 1: What is the level of reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? The level of reading habit of the respondents is shown in Table 4.3: 65 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.3: Level of the Reading Habit of Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State S\N Items No response SD D A SA Mean S.D 1 To pass examinations 467 18.9% 114 4.6% 198 8.0% 628 25.4% 1,061 43.0% 2.69 1.52 2 Self-development 495 20.1% 118 4.8% 209 8.5% 648 26.3% 998 40.4% 2.62 1.53 3 To be acquire information 610 24.7% 127 5.1% 223 9.0% 702 28.4% 806 32.7% 2.39 1.57 Purpose 4 For leisure and fun 579 23.5% 166 6.7% 283 11.5% 657 26.6% 783 31.7% 2.36 1.55 5 To be at par with my school mates 624 25.3% 200 8.1% 307 12.4% 662 26.8% 675 27.4% 2.23 1.55 6 To while away time 660 26.7% 185 7.5% 326 13.2% 644 26.1% 653 26.5% 2.18 1.56 7 Take coffee 604 24.5% 348 14.1% 343 13.9% 520 21.1% 653 26.5% 2.11 1.54 8 Soak legs in water 651 26.4% 426 17.3% 441 17.9% 475 19.2% 475 19.2% 1.88 1.48 9 Listen to music 684 27.7% 444 18.0% 489 19.8% 435 17.6% 416 16.9% 1.78 1.45 Mannerism 10 Use drugs 768 31.1% 407 16.5% 391 15.8% 441 17.9% 461 18.7% 1.76 1.51 11 Chew gum 738 29.9% 426 17.3% 437 17.7% 447 18.1% 420 17.0% 1.75 1.47 12 Bite finger nails 712 28.8% 462 18.7% 480 19.4% 398 16.1% 416 16.9% 1.73 1.45 13 I am a keen reader 148 6.0% 51 2.1% 186 7.5% 1049 42.5% 1,034 41.9% 3.12 1.05 14 I prefer reading in isolation 188 7.6% 109 4.4% 257 10.4% 934 37.8% 980 39.7% 2.98 1.17 15 I most often squeeze-in time to read everyday 188 7.6% 127 5.1% 355 14.4% 973 39.4% 825 33.4% 2.86 1.16 Pattern 16 I don‟t feel fulfilled until I have read in a day 371 15.0% 104 4.2% 218 8.8% 750 0.4% 1,025 41.5% 2.79 1.41 17 Read books 456 18.5% 117 4.7% 200 8.1% 820 33.2% 875 35.5% 2.62 1.47 18 I take pleasure in reading at my leisure period 410 16.6% 138 5.6% 252 10.2% 858 34.8% 810 32.8% 2.62 1.42 19 While away time with my mates 633 25.6% 282 11.4% 432 17.5% 715 29.0% 406 16.5% 1.99 1.45 20 Subject texts 790 32.0% 150 . 1% 218 8.8% 576 23.3% 734 29.7% 2.13 1.66 21 Historical books 765 31.0% 139 5.6% 242 9.8% 650 26.3% 672 27.2% 2.13 1.62 22 Author 731 29.6% 161 6.5% 329 13.3% 681 27.6% 566 22.9% 2.08 1.56 23 The books summary 740 30.0% 190 7.7% 279 11.3% 671 27.2% 588 23.8% 2.07 1.58 24 Both 796 32.3% 176 7.1% 271 11.0% 568 23.0% 657 26.6% 2.05 1.63 25 Adventure 873 35.4% 161 6.5% 225 9.1% 546 22.1% 663 26.9% 1.99 1.67 26 Series 901 36.5% 116 4.7% 233 9.4% 552 22.4% 666 27.0% 1.99 1.68 27 Biographies 855 34.6% 161 6.5% 249 10.1% 585 23.7% 618 25.0% 1.98 1.64 Types 28 Non-fiction 809 32.8% 223 9.0% 289 11.7% 528 21.4% 619 25.1% 1.97 1.62 29 Fiction 786 31.8% 273 11.1% 314 12.7% 550 22.3% 545 22.1% 1.92 1.58 30 Autobiographies 869 35.2% 196 7.9% 246 10.0% 606 24.6% 551 22.3% 1.91 1.62 31 Recommendation from mates 676 27.4% 283 11.5% 492 19.9% 678 27.5% 339 13.7% 1.89 1.42 32 Fantasies 922 37.4% 170 6.9% 256 10.4% 544 22.0% 576 23.3% 1.87 1.64 33 The books cover page 771 31.2% 317 12.8% 387 15.7% 513 20.8% 480 19.4% 1.84 1.53 34 Comics 933 37.8% 188 7.6% 281 11.4% 529 21.4% 537 21.8% 1.82 1.63 35 Romance 936 37.9% 215 8.7% 259 10.5% 519 21.0% 539 21.8% 1.80 1.63 36 Less than 1 hour 484 19.6% 270 10.9% 386 15.6% 703 28.5% 625 25.3% 2.29 1.45 37 1 hour 646 26.2% 229 9.3% 356 14.4% 625 25.3% 612 24.8% 2.13 1.54 Frequency 38 2-4 hour 643 26.1% 225 9.1% 374 15.2% 627 25.4% 599 24.3% 2.13 1.53 39 4-6 hour 780 31.6% 286 11.6% 443 17.9% 520 21.1% 439 17.8% 1.82 1.51 40 6 hours and above 830 33.6% 375 15.2% 460 18.6% 434 17.6% 369 15.0% 1.65 1.47 Criterion Mean = 2.5 Grand Mean = 2.15 6 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Table 4.3, the rating of the items on the purpose of reading by the respondents revealed passing examinations ( x = 2.69, 68.4%), self-development ( x = 2.62, 66.7%) and acquisition of information ( x = 2.39) as some of the major purposes for which the students read. Furthermore, the following were some of the mannerisms that the students engaged in while reading: coffee-taking ( x = 2.11, 47.6%), soaking legs in water ( x = 1.88, 38.4%) and drug usage ( x = 1.76, 36.6%). The pattern of reading of the students was as follows: keen reader ( x = 3.12, 84.4%), reading in isolation ( x = 2.98, 77.5%) and squeezing time to read every day ( x = 2.86, 72.8%) among others. Findings on the types of educational resources read by the respondents and the attraction to what is read revealed the following: subject texts ( x = 2.13, 53.0%), historical books ( x = 2.13, 53.5%) and author ( x = 2.08, 50.5%), being ranked topmost while book cover page ( x = 1.84, 41.2%), comics ( x = 1.82, 43.2%), and romance ( x = 1.82, 42.8%) were ranked last. On the frequency of reading carried out by the students on daily basis, the findings were as follows: less than one hour ( x = 2.29, 53.8%), 2-4 hours ( x = 2.13, 49.7%), one hour ( x = 2.13, 40.1%), 4 – 6 hours ( x = 1.82, 38.9%), 6 hours and above ( x = 1.6532.6%). The study has shown that Senior Secondary school II students in Oyo State read for the purpose of passing examinations, self-development, information and entertainment but that they read for less than 1 hour on a daily basis. Furthermore, the students under study read mainly subject texts and historical books and that they prefer to read in isolation. Overall, the grand mean of reading habit of Senior Secondary school two students in Oyo State, Nigeria which is 2.15 was found to be lower than the criterion mean of 2.50 set for high level of reading habit among the Senior Secondary school two students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Thus, a low level of reading habit was established among the students. Research question 2: What is the level of self-esteem of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? Table 4.4 presents the findings: 67 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.4: Level of Self-esteem of Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State S\N Items SD D A SA Mean S.D 1 I like myself 90 110 628 1,640 3.55 .75 3.6% 4.5% 25.4% 66.5% 2 I feel that I have a number of good qualities 66 88 872 1,442 3.50 .69 2.7% 3.6% 35.3% 58.4% 3 I have respect for myself 93 115 733 1,527 3.50 .75 3.8% 4.7% 29.7% 61.9% 4 I take a positive attitude towards myself 100 129 775 1,464 3.46 .77 4.1% 5.2% 31.4% 59.3% 5 I tell myself the truth most of the time 109 159 841 1,359 3.40 .80 4.4% 6.4% 34.1% 55.1% 6 I feel a deep sense of fulfillment 101 152 925 1,290 3.38 .78 4.1% 6.2% 37.5% 52.3% 7 I feel I‟m able to do things as well as most 119 129 923 1,297 3.38 .79 other people 4.8% 5.2% 37.4% 52.6% 8 I consider myself as being good at times 101 138 993 1,236 3.36 .77 4.1% 5.6% 40.2% 50.1% 9 I feel that I‟m a person of worth at least on an 165 139 835 1,329 3.35 .86 equal level with my mates 6.7% 5.6% 33.8% 53.8% 10 On the whole, I‟m satisfied with myself 127 192 830 1,319 3.35 .83 5.1% 7.8% 33.6% 53.4% 11 I certainly feel confident most time 100 177 1059 1,132 3.31 .77 4.1% 7.2% 42.9% 45.9% 12 I stand up for myself sometimes 137 175 1024 1,132 3.28 .82 5.6% 7.1% 41.5% 45.9% 13 I feel proud of whatever I‟m able to 206 238 750 1,274 3.25 .94 accomplish 8.3% 9.6% 30.4% 51.6% 14 I don‟t bother myself with what others think 156 279 878 1,155 3.23 .88 about me 6.3% 11.3% 35.6% 46.8% 15 I feel I can stand alone sometimes 133 254 1014 1,067 3.22 .84 5.4% 10.3% 41.1% 43.2% 16 I focus more on my areas of strength 139 262 1005 1,062 3.21 .85 sometimes 5.6% 10.6% 40.7% 43.0% 17 I don‟t compare myself to others 200 335 892 1,041 3.12 .93 8.1% 13.6% 36.1% 42.2% 18 I don‟t see myself as responsible for others 257 291 831 1,089 3.12 .98 failure 10.4% 11.8% 33.7% 44.1% 19 I like being alone sometimes 228 343 940 957 3.06 .94 9.2% 13.9% 38.1% 38.8% Criterion mean = 2.5 Grand mean = 3.32 68 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY From the findings in Table 4.4, the highest ranked in the mean score rating ( x = 3.55), was the respondents liking themselves. This is followed by the feeling that they have a number of good qualities and having respect for themselves ( x = 3.50) respectively. Conversely, the lowest ranked level of self-esteem by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State include not comparing themselves to others ( x = 3.12), not seeing oneself as responsible for other‟s failure ( x = 3.12) and liking being alone sometimes ( x = 3.06). Overall, the grand mean of 3.32 for self-esteem of the students was found to be greater than the criterion mean of 2.50 set for high self-esteem among the respondents. This means that the Senior Secondary school II students in Oyo State, Nigeria have high self-esteem. Research question 3: What is the level of peer influence among Senior Secondary II school students in Oyo State? Table 4.5 shows the findings: 69 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.5: Level of Peer Influence of Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State S\N Items Highly Influenced Not Mean S.D influenced influenced 1 It makes me confident to be with 1,286 911 271 2.41 .68 my school mates 52.1% 36.9% 11.0% 2 I do things to impress my school 1,058 850 560 2.20 .78 mates 42.9% 34.4% 22.7% 3 I consider the opinion of my 910 1127 431 2.19 .71 school mates in anything I do 36.9% 45.7% 17.5% 4 I like to get into activities that 951 1036 481 2.19 .74 my school mates are involved in 38.5% 42.0% 19.5% 5 I let my mates know what I‟m 880 1175 413 2.19 .70 doing sometimes 35.7% 47.6% 16.7% 6 It is worthwhile to read because 942 878 648 2.12 .79 my school mates read 38.2% 35.6% 26.3% 7 My reading activities are 888 865 715 2.07 .80 influenced by my school mates 36.0% 35.0% 29.0% 8 I see it as important when my 752 931 785 1.99 .79 school mates compare me with 30.5% 37.7% 31.8% another person 9 I‟ll rather be on my own than 802 846 820 1.99 .81 doing what my school mates do 32.5% 34.3% 33.2% 10 Whatever my school mates do are 549 940 979 1.83 .77 of no importance to me 22.2% 38.1% 39.7% 11 I try not to impress my school 547 664 1257 1.71 .81 mates 22.2% 26.9% 50.9% 12 I feel uncomfortable being with 540 616 1312 1.69 .81 my school mates 21.9% 25.0% 53.2% Criterion mean = 2 Grand mean = 2.05 Findings in Table 4.5 reveal that majority of the respondents were influenced by their peers with being confident to be with other school mates ( x = 2.41) ranking highest, followed by doing things to impress school mates ( x = 2.20) and considering the opinion of school mates in anything done ( x = 2.19). However, whatever their school 70 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY mates do is of no importance ( x = 1.83), not trying to impress school mates ( x = 1.71) and feeling uncomfortable being with school mates ( x = 1.69) were ranked last. Furthermore, the grand mean (2.05) was found to be higher than the criterion mean (2.0) set for high level of peer influence among the respondents. It can therefore be inferred that there was a high level of peer influence among the Senior Secondary school II students surveyed. Research question 4: What is the purpose of use of social media by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? Table 4.6 presents the findings: Table 4.6: Purpose of Use of Social Media by Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State S\N Items SD D A SA Mean S.D 1 Read 162 170 844 1,292 3.32 .87 6.6% 6.9% 34.2% 52.4% 2 Source for news 184 196 923 1,165 3.24 .89 7.5% 7.9% 37.4% 47.2% 3 Make new friends 199 201 915 1,153 3.22 .91 8.1% 8.1% 37.1% 46.7% 4 Socialise with contacts 178 212 1078 1,000 3.18 .87 7.2% 8.6% 43.7% 40.5% 5 Have leisure/fun/entertain 184 250 1012 1,022 3.16 .89 7.5% 10.1% 41.0% 41.4% 6 Find community of interest 214 271 1006 977 3.11 .92 8.7% 11.0% 40.8% 39.6% 7 Play games 396 509 853 710 2.76 1.04 16.0% 20.6% 34.6% 28.8% 8 Pass away time 470 677 772 549 2.57 1.04 19.0% 27.4% 31.3% 22.2% Criterion mean = 2.5 Grand mean = 3.07 71 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.6 reveals reading ( x = 3.32, 86.65), sourcing for news ( x = 3.24, 84.6%), and making new friends ( x = 3.22, 83.8%), socialising with contact ( x = 3.18, 84.2%) as major purposes for which the respondents make use of social media. The implication to be drawn from this is that Senior Secondary school II students in Oyo State, Nigeria, make use of social media mainly for the purposes of reading, sourcing for news, making new friends, socialising with contacts, having leisure/fun/entertainment and finding community of interest. Research question 5: What are the means of utilisation of social media sites by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? Table 4.7 shows the findings: Table 4.7: Means of Utilisation of Social Media Sites by Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State S\N Items SD D A SA Mean S.D 1 Personal mobile phone(s) 230 157 675 1,406 3.32 .95 9.3% 6.4% 27.4% 57.0% 2 Laptop(s) 503 432 780 753 2.72 1.10 20.4% 17.5% 31.6% 30.5% 3 My parent mobile phone(s) 566 545 749 608 2.57 1.09 22.9% 22.1% 30.3% 24.6% 4 My friends mobile phone(s) 592 578 767 531 2.50 1.08 24.0% 23.4% 31.1% 21.5% 5 Desktop(s) 652 538 689 589 2.49 1.12 26.4% 21.8% 27.9% 23.9% 6 Cybercafé 649 581 670 568 2.47 1.11 26.3% 23.5% 27.1% 23.0% 7 ICT centre within the school 687 570 652 559 2.44 1.12 27.8% 23.1% 26.4% 22.6% Criterion mean = 2.5 Grand mean = 2.64 From Table 4.7 the findings show that the highest means of utilising the social media by the students was personal/mobile phone ( x = 3.32, 84.45) followed by laptop ( x = 72 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 2.72, 62.1%) and parents‟ mobile phone ( x = 2.57, 54.9%) while ICT centre within their school ( x = 2.44, 49.0%) was the least means of access. It connotes that the major means of access of utilising social media by Senior Secondary school II students in Oyo State, Nigeria are resources that respondents have immediate control over. It is evident that social media were yet to be inculcated into the school library media centre with the response of the respondents on the access of the ICT facility within the school, which was the least utilised. Research question 6: What is the most used social media sites by Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? Table 4.8 presents the findings: 73 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.8: Most Used Social Media by Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State Never Occasionally Seldomly Mostly S\N Items No response Mean S.D used used used used 1 Facebook 318 223 165 500 1,262 2.88 1.44 12.9% 9.0% 6.7% 20.3% 51.1% 2 2go 588 220 150 305 1,205 2.53 1.68 23.8% 8.9% 6.1% 12.4% 48.8% 3 Google talk 713 262 226 452 815 2.16 1.66 28.9% 10.6% 9.2% 18.3% 33.0% 4 WhatsApp 819 287 223 390 749 1.99 1.68 33.2% 11.6% 9.0% 15.8% 30.3% 5 Twitter 830 321 230 416 671 1.91 1.65 33.6% 13.0% 9.3% 16.9% 27.2% 6 Messenger 919 393 243 356 557 1.69 1.61 37.2% 15.9% 9.8% 14.4% 22.6% 7 BBM 881 455 289 390 453 1.63 1.54 35.7% 18.4% 11.7% 15.8% 18.4% 8 Badoo 903 637 215 330 383 1.45 1.48 36.6% 25.8% 8.7% 13.4% 15.5% 9 Yelp 1,035 439 281 354 359 1.42 1.50 41.9% 17.8% 11.4% 14.3% 14.5% 10 Foursquare 1,016 470 310 400 272 1.37 1.43 41.2% 19.0% 12.6% 16.2% 11.0% 11 MySpace 1,029 514 271 294 360 1.37 1.48 41.7% 20.8% 11.0% 11.9% 14.6% 12 Skype 1,016 488 323 345 296 1.36 1.43 41.2% 19.8% 13.1% 14.0% 12.0% 13 Reddit 1,046 481 329 299 313 1.33 1.44 42.4% 19.5% 13.3% 12.1% 12.7% 14 Clixtr 1,028 517 366 279 278 1.30 1.39 41.7% 20.9% 14.8% 11.3% 11.3% 15 Gowalla 1,054 528 342 304 240 1.25 1.37 42.7% 21.4% 13.9% 12.3% 9.7% 16 Hi5 1,061 525 319 328 235 1.25 1.37 43.0% 21.3% 12.9% 13.3% 9.5% 17 Orkut 1,080 582 225 287 294 1.24 1.42 43.8% 23.6% 9.1% 11.6% 11.9% 18 Twiki 1,137 490 302 270 269 1.21 1.40 46.1% 19.9% 12.2% 10.9% 10.9% 19 Twade 1,131 505 278 298 256 1.21 1.39 45.8% 20.5% 11.3% 12.1% 10.4% 20 Naigalonge 1,103 524 326 264 251 1.20 1.37 44.7% 21.2% 13.2% 10.7% 10.2% 21 Fresqui 1,125 499 305 297 242 1.20 1.38 45.6% 20.2% 12.4% 12.0% 9.8% 22 Technocrat 1,128 507 319 271 243 1.19 1.37 45.7% 20.5% 12.9% 11.0% 9.8% 23 Diigo 1,126 516 321 260 245 1.18 1.37 45.6% 20.9% 13.0% 10.5% 9.9% 24 Propeller 1,117 528 311 310 202 1.17 1.34 45.3% 21.4% 12.6% 12.6% 8.2% 25 Stumble 1,123 523 339 266 217 1.16 1.34 45.5% 21.2% 13.7% 10.8% 8.8% Criterion mean = 2.5 Grand mean = 1.51 74 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY In Table 4.8, out of the 25 social media sites identified by this study, the rating shows that Facebook ( x = 2.88, 51.1%) ranked as most used by the respondents followed by 2go ( x = 2.53, 48.8%), Google talk ( x = 2.16, 33.0%), WhatsApp (x = 1.99, 30.3%), Twitter ( x = 1.91, 27.2%). However, Technocrat ( x = 1.19, 9.8%), Diigo ( x = 1.18, 9.9%), Propeller ( x = 1.17, 8.2%) and Stumble ( x = 1.16, 8.8%) were the least used by the respondents. Since the criterion mean (2.5) set for regular/most used social media is greater than the grand mean (1.15) it means the respondents did not use majority of the social media sites but only a few of them. Research question 7: What is the difference in the reading habit between public and private Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? Table 4.9 reveals the findings: Table 4.9: Comparison of the Reading Habit of Public and Private Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State Reading habit N Mean Std. Dev. Crit-t Cal-t. DF P Public schools 1,304 95.6258 39.7378 1.96 2.534 2466 .011 Private schools 1,164 99.5404 36.6569 Table 4.9 shows that there is a significant difference in the reading habit of the students from public and private secondary schools in Oyo State with the results (Cal.t = 2.534, df = 2,466, P < .05). This implies that the students‟ reading habit in private Senior Secondary School was more encouraging than that of their counterparts in public Senior Secondary Schools. 75 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Research question 8: What are the joint contributions of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to the reading habit of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State? Table 4.10 presents the findings: Table 4.10: Summary of Regression Model of Self-esteem, Peer Influence and Social Media Utilisation and Reading Habit of the Respondents Adjusted Std. Error of the R R Square R Square Estimate .35 .12 .12 36.02 A N O V A Sum of Mean Model DF F Sig. Remark Squares Square Regression 432716.35 3 144238.78 111.17 .00 Sig. Residual 3197022.7 2464 1297.49 Total 3629739.1 2467 2 Table 4.10 reveals a coefficient of multiple correlation (R = .35 and a multiple R of .12. This means that the independent variables accounted for 12.0% of the total variance in the reading habit when taken together. The significance of the composite contribution was tested at P < .05. It furthermore showed that the analysis of variance for the regression yielded an F-ratio of 111.17. This implies that the joint contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variable was significant (F (3, 2467) 111.17; p<0.05) and that other variables not included in this study may have accounted for the remaining variance. By and large, the findings revealed that self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation jointly correlated positively to reading habit. Research question 9: What are the relative contributions of each of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 76 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.11 shows the findings: Table 4.11: Summary of Regression Model for Relative Contributions of Self- esteem, Peer Influence and Social Media Utilisation to the Reading Habit of Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State Model Unstandardised Stand. T Sig. P Remark Coefficient Coefficient B Std. Error Beta Contribution (Constant) 36.405 4.774 7.626 .000 sig. Social media utilisation 1.243 .086 .321 14.454 .000 sig. Peer influence .475 .162 .064 2.941 .003 sig. Self-esteem -5.436E-02 .080 -.015 -.678 .498 n.s. Table 4.11 shows the relative contributions of the following variables to the reading habit of the students: self-esteem (β = -.015), peer influence (β = .064) and social media utilisation (β = .321). Hence, while peer influence and social media utilisation were found statistically significant, self-esteem was not. This means that peer influence and social media utilisation enhanced Senior Secondary School II students reading habit while self-esteem did not. This implies that social media utilisation was the leading contributor to the reading habit of the students. Research question 10: What is the pattern of relationship that exists among self- esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation and the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? Table 4.12 presents the findings: 77 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Table 4.12: Correlation matrix showing the Relationships between Self-esteem, Peer Influence and Social Media Utilisation and Reading Habit of Senior Secondary School Students in Oyo State, Nigeria Reading Self- Peer Social Mean Std. Dev. Habit esteem Influence Media Utilisation Reading habit 1 97.4720 38.3578 Self-esteem .160** 1 62.7002 10.6205 Peer influence .192** .419** 1 24.4250 5.1489 Social media .341** .462** .419** 1 42.5462 9.9086 utilisation ** Sig. at P < .01 level Findings from Table 4.12 reveal positive significant relationships between reading habit and self-esteem (r =.160, reading habit and peer influence (r =.192, and between reading habit and social media utilisation (r =.341. This implies that self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation are positively correlated to the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria. This connotes that if the three independent variables are positively utilised, they will enhance good reading habit among Senior Secondary School II students. 4.3 Discussion of the findings 4.3.1 Level of reading habit of Senior Secondary School Students II in Oyo State, Nigeria Findings from this study revealed that students‟ reading habit was poor. This implies that Senior Secondary school students‟ reading habit was on the decline. There is an obvious reason for this decline as the research result showed that there is a considerable influence of the use of social media on the reading habit of the students. There is the likelihood that the use of handheld device like mobile telephone to listen to music while reading could constitute a distraction to the level of concentration of the students, 78 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY especially where the reader listens to music, which is his favourite. Not only this, the use of drug to aid reading, over time could lead to dependency, which may hinder concentration during reading where such drug is unavailable to the student-reader. Findings also showed that reading subject texts ranked highest under the types of materials that the respondents read. The implication of this is that no reader could be said to have formed a good reading habit until such reader goes beyond the level of reading only prescribed texts or engaging in specific-target reading. The findings from the study also showed that the respondents ranked reading to pass examinations highest. Furthermore, the duration of reading, with less than one hour was ranked highest, as shown by the findings and this is a pointer to the fact that a good reading habit cannot be cultivated if little time is devoted to reading. The cultivation of good reading habit can only be aided when reading is seen as serious exercise with adequate time devoted to it. Such other mannerisms (taking coffee, gum chewing, soaking legs in water and biting finger nails) to assist reading, as found in the study, could furthermore impact negatively on the development of good reading habit by the students. Igbokwe, Obidike and Ezeji (2012) had attempted to advance reasons for the poor reading habit as finding in their study showed that technological advancements such as computers and other related gadgets, cable television, connectivity to the Internet, video and computer games, chat rooms and blogs have come to influence the reading habit of Senior Secondary students negatively. Ibode and Isiugo-Abanihe (2011) in their study on the extent to which teachers in the secondary schools in South-West were implementing research-based strategies for improving reading culture among youths had lamented the phenomenon of poor reading culture, especially among youths in Nigeria. However, this technological influence, leading to decline in good reading habit was not limited to Nigeria, raising the need for a concerted effort among stakeholders to find ways of addressing the problem (Liu, 2000; Education Department, 2001; Market and Opinion Research International, 2004). This indicated that there are factors that could lower students‟ reading habit, although the study by Oyewusi and Ayanlola (2014) on the effect of mobile phones use on the reading habit of private secondary school students in Oyo State, found that mobile phones useful to reading. This suggests 79 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY that social media may not have negative influence on students‟ reading habit, depending on the use to which they are put. The suggestion advanced by Busari and Ladipo (2013) that reading resources be digitised to encourage students to read more beyond the print resources may become relevant in order to arrest the falling level of secondary school students‟ reading habit. This suggestion could become valid against the backdrop of earlier findings that students have been found to avail themselves of the use of social media for various reasons. This could be exploited to address their academic needs in order to improve their reading habit. 4.3.2 Level of self-esteem of Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State, Nigeria Findings from this study revealed that the level of self-esteem of Senior Secondary school students was high. The implication is that Senior Secondary school students with high self-esteem will develop the right attitude towards reading, which will invariably lead to the cultivation of good reading habit. This is in agreement with the findings of James and Nightingale (2005) that an individual with high self-esteem displays a normal or constant disposition often because of the perception that he can achieve whatever tasks that lies ahead of him. King and Robinson (2009); Annetta, Minogue, Holmes and Cheng (2009); Chen, Lambert and Guidry, (2010) also found that high level of self-esteem can enhance academic performance among Senior Secondary school students. There is no doubt that no student can achieve anything in his academic activities unless such student has a good reading habit. This presupposes that conscious effort has to be made to develop self-esteem in students, especially as they are growing up to become young adult. 4.3.3 Level of peer influence among Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State, Nigeria Finding showed that the level of influence the peers had on the respondents was high. This implies that the influence from peers on the respondents was pronounced, an indication that peers could influence one another either positively or negatively. This corroborates the findings of Aliu, Olaseni and Mathew (2012); Aina, Okusaga, Taiwo 80 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY and Ogundipe (2011); Reich (2010); Burke and Sass (2008) and ELNORD (2006) that peers play an influential role on one another. There is no doubt that where peers exert a positive influence on each other, there is the tendency for the individual to tilt towards self-development. Studies by Balasundram (1991; cited in Majid and Tan, 2007); Steffensen and Weinreich (2000) and Sturm (2003) established a positive correlation between peer influence and reading habit among Singapore, Danish and American boys and girls. In essence, students could be mentored to exert positive influence on one another for them to develop good reading habit in order to achieve academic success. 4.3.4 Purpose of usage of social media by Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State, Nigeria Findings from this study revealed that the students used the social media more for reading-related activities. This corroborates the findings of Ramirez (2003) and Liu (2005) that young adults were found spending more time reading electronic materials. The findings furthermore showed that social media were used to source for news by the students. This implies that the generally held belief that the preponderance of social media may impact negatively on students‟ reading habit may not be true after all. This is because the findings indicated that the students used social media less for activities that may distract them from their academic activities. It is therefore important that the use of social media by Senior Secondary school students be guided and monitored. This is in line with the recommendation made by Akindehin and Akindehin (2011) in their study on online social networking practices to bring out desirable effect, particularly in promoting good reading habit. 4.3.5 Means of utilisation of social media by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria Mobile phone accounted for the most social media devices used among the Senior Secondary school students as found in this study, this was followed by laptop, while ICT and cybercafé reported the lowest social media devices utilisation. This implies that the possession of mobile phone device encourages social media utilisation to develop reading habit. This agrees with; Allen (2008); Shabi and Udofia (2009); Fosudo (2010); Lenhart, Purcell, Smith and Zickurh, 2010; and Ahn (2011) findings 81 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY that secondary school students are among the most prolific users of social media, spending a considerable portion of their daily life interacting through these mobile devices. Furthermore, UNESCO (2011) and Oyewusi and Ayanlola (2014) consented with this finding that mobile learning is an attractive and easy means to maintain literacy skill and gain constant access to information. It is accessible, thus holds great potential for reaching marginalised groups and providing them with access to further learning and development. 4.3.6 Most used social media by Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria The finding indicated that the mostly used social media sites were Facebook, 2go, Google talk, WhatsApp, Twitter, Messenger BBM, Badoo, Yelp, Myspace and Skype. Facebook and 2go made the highest social media sites visited by the respondents. This finding is corroborated by earlier finding by Ufuophu-Biri and Iwu (2014) that secondary school students were among those who use social media most. The finding of this study was further reinforced by those of Gergen (1991); Suler (2004); Gackenbach and Stackelberg (2007); Gross (2004; cited in Akanbi and Theophilus, 2014) and Valkenburg (2008) that the Internet is a useful place for adolescents to develop identity. It means that the two sites offered the respondents the platform to access the Internet. It can be deduced from this finding that these social media sites, if well monitored can be a good channel to learning. Narvaez, van den Broek and Ruiz (1999; cited in Linderholm, 2006); Alvermann (2010); Leu (2002); Coiro (2003; cited in Susan, Rush, Eakle and Berger, 2008); Lankshear and Knobel (2003) and Rouis and Salehi (2011) furthermore lent credence to this finding that Internet reading has come to be regarded as one of the new literacy skills being used for two purposes - reading for study and reading for entertainment. However, Liu (2005) warned that electronic media may give negative implication to reading as people may become less engaged in extensive reading, thus lacking the ability to read deeply and sustain a prolonged engagement in reading while Whitehouse (2010) warned that excessive use of social media by secondary school students could lead to failure in examinations. What this suggests is that mechanism has to be put in place to monitor the usage of these social media by secondary school students to ensure that they are used productively for academic purposes. 82 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4.3.7 Difference in the reading habit of Senior Secondary School students in public and private schools in Oyo State, Nigeria The finding from the study showed that a difference existed in the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in public and private schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. Senior Secondary school students in private schools were found to have a better reading habit than their counterparts in the public schools. This is in line with previous findings by Anastasiadou (2009); Ünal (2010); Baş (2012); and Diem (2012) on the reading habit among secondary school students in public and private schools. One of the reasons for the difference in the reading habit of the respondents may have to do with the fact that secondary school students in private schools have access to instructional materials located in their schools‟ library media centres. Beside this, they are encouraged by their parents who provided the needed instructional books and other recreational books for them, as they may need them. Peers also play positive influence in the reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in private schools because of the prevailing environment that obtains in these schools (Market and Opinion Research International, 2004). However, Nwokocha (2014) identified environmental influence, parental and teachers influence, peer pressure and school curriculum as some factors that can militate against reading habit. This is why Kumar, Ansari and Shukla (2010) recommended in the study on the reading habit of Senior Secondary school in Allahabad, India that Senior Secondary students need to improve their reading habit. 4.3.8 Joint contribution of self-esteem, peer influence and utilisation of social media to the reading habit of secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria The finding of this study revealed that reading habit correlated positively with self- esteem, peer influence and utilisation of social media. This implies that all the three independent variables are potent predictors of students‟ reading habit. This finding supports Fosudo (2010) which found that poor reading habit is related to many influencing factors such as peer influence, school environment, parents‟ and teachers‟ attitudes. Majeed and Tan (2007) also corroborated the finding that there are several factors that could motivate an individual to engage in reading activities; as reading has been the passion of the greatest personalities of all times. Similarly, the finding 83 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY corroborated that of Fazal, Hussein, Majoka and Masood (2012) on the study habits among secondary school students. From this study, it could be observed that, self- esteem, peer influence and utilisation of social media are the determinants of reading habit of secondary school students. 4.3.9 Relative contributions of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to the reading habit of Senior Secondary School students in Oyo State, Nigeria The finding on the relative contributions of self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation to reading habit of the respondents showed that social media utilisation made the most significant relative contribution to reading habit. This implies that Senior Secondary school students‟ reading habit can be enhanced by social media utilisation. This is in consonance with the findings of Kumar, Ansari and Shukia (2010) that the use of social media devices improved reading habit of Senior Secondary students in Allahabad, India. The emergence of the new digital environment with the growing amount of digital information available has made people, particularly young adults, to spend more time reading electronic than printed materials, which helps in enhancing good reading habit. The finding of the present study further supports that of Kumar, Singh and Siddiqui (2011); Bobda (2011); and Arua (2011) that social media utilisation correlated positively with good reading habit. Similarly, Liu (2005) and Ramirez (2003) found a significant positive relationship between social media utilisation and reading habit based on age factor. They concluded that younger people can endure more time reading the screen-based materials while Snijders (2005); de Nooy, Mrvar and Batagelj (2005); Ripley, Snijders and Preciadol (2011) found that social media were the most predictable factor that influences reading habit. boyd (2007) also affirmed that social media are youths‟ acceptable means of connecting with friends, family and acquaintances, thereby reinforcing the structural dimensions of peer social world that exist in schools; as well as enhancing reading habit. Social media utilisation therefore, is a potent factor that could influence students‟ reading habit positively. 84 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Peer influence also contributed significantly to reading habit. This means that peer influence is also a potent determinant of reading habit. In adolescence, it is not only family but also peers who become more important as a reference group; hence peer motivation is a significant tool for developing good reading habit. This is in line with the findings of Crede and Kuncel (2008) on meta-analysis that non-cognitive factors like peer motivation, self-concept among other attitudinal constructs, accounted for incremental variance in reading habit. Furthermore, the finding of Nagaraju (2004) supported that for good academic success and good reading habit, peer motivation is a potent factor. The study of Burke and Sass (2008) on classroom peer influence and students‟ achievement in art, found that group reading among peer influences reading habit of secondary school students. This is a fundamental factor in developing reading skills among secondary school students as peer influence encourages reading habit. The existence of a positive significant relationship between peer influence and reading habit of the students could be because the students were mainly adolescents who could be influenced by their peers. This corroborates the study of Market and Opinion Research International (MORI) (2004) that peer influence was the top most reason for reading books among youth aged between 11 and 18 years in Britain. On the contrary, Kamil‟s (2003) study on how to improve the literacy of children in grades 4–12 in the United States of America did not find any link between peer influence and reading habit. Furthermore, self-esteem reported a negative contribution and is not significant to the prediction of reading habit. This connotes that the level of self-esteem may not affect reading habit of secondary school students. This implies that self-esteem of the study respondents did not determine their reading habit. This finding tallied with that of Kalpidou, Costin and Morris (2011) on the influence of social media and self-esteem, which found a negative correlation between social media and self-esteem. It is also consistent with the finding of Mehdizadeh (2010) of a negative correlation between self-esteem and study habit. Similarly, Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) found a negative correlation between time spent on Facebook and self-esteem; suggesting that spending a lot of time on social media is associated with low self-esteem. However, James and Nightingale, (2005) found a positive correlation between self-esteem and 85 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY student‟s reading habit. Makotsi (2005) furthermore found a positive correlation between self-esteem and reading while Crocker (2006); Makotsi (2005) and Bisong (2006) established a strong relationship between self-esteem and reading habit. 4.3.10 Pattern of relationship among self-esteem, peer influence, social media utilisation and reading habit of Senior Secondary School II students in Oyo State, Nigeria The finding revealed that self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation correlated positively with the reading habit of the students. This indicates that self- esteem, peer influence and social media are significantly related to reading habit. This corroborates the finding of Issa, Aliyu, Akangbe and Adedeji (2012) that reading habit is determined by many factors. These factors, according to them can ensure effective process of conscious learning and sometimes, they influence the extent and accuracy of information as well as the attitude, moral, belief, judgment and action of readers thereby helping in sustaining the linkage in human development. Furthermore, Greene (2001) found that to develop reading requires a function of range of factors including interest in reading. The finding supports that of Bashir and Mattoo (2012) that there is a highly significant relationship among various variables of reading habit and academic performance. Similarly, the study of Osa-Edoh and Alutu (2012) found that there was a high correlation between study habits and students‟ academic performance. 86 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary of the findings The major findings in this study are as follows: 1. The reading habit of Senior Secondary school students was poor. 2. Majority of the respondents had high level of self-esteem. 3. The level of peer influence on the respondents was high. 4. Majority of the respondents used social media for reading-related activities. 5. Mobile phone was the most social media device among Senior Secondary School students followed by laptop. 6. Facebook and 2go made the highest social media sites visited by Senior Secondary School students. 7. There was a difference in the reading habit of Senior Secondary School in public and private schools, with students in private secondary school having a better reading habit than their counterparts in public secondary school. 8. Self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation jointly contributed to reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State. 9. Social media utilisation contributed mostly to the prediction of reading habit of Senior Secondary School students, followed by peer influence, while self- esteem had negative and no significant contribution to reading habit. 10. There exists a positive and significant relationship among self-esteem, peer influence, social media utilisation and reading habit of Senior Secondary School students. 5.2 Conclusion The study established that all the independent variables (self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation) had significant positive correlation to reading habit of Senior Secondary school II students in Oyo State. This shows that the independent variables can act as predictors of reading habit. 87 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 5.3 Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: 1. The study established that the reading habit of the students was poor. To improve the situation, secondary school students should be motivated to embrace good reading habit. This can be achieved through the establishment of private libraries at home, equipping of existing public libraries, and presentation of educative books as well and other educational materials, especially by parents in commemoration of birthdays and other celebrations of their wards to compliment recreational/social activities. Concerted effort should also be made by curriculum developers to inculcate productive use of reading hours by students, with less emphasis on induced reading to pass examinations. 2. The existing high level of self-esteem among secondary school students in Oyo State should be sustained and enhanced. This can be achieved through the organisation and promotion of reading-related activities such as literary and debating competition, spelling bee, inter-class debate, story hour and library hour by concerned stakeholders. In this regard, appropriate reward mechanism should be put in place to encourage brilliance, scholarship and merit. 3. The prevailing peer group influence among Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State should be explored by both the teachers and the parents as a tool for improving their reading habit. This can be achieved when parents and teachers monitor and tutor the kind of peer their children keep. 4. Although the study found that students utilise social media for reading-related activities, secondary school teachers should be enjoined to encourage their students to intensify the use of social media for educational purpose. It is also important that the use of social media by Senior Secondary school students be guided and monitored. This they can do by giving them assignments that would compel them to explore the Internet as a veritable instrument to promote good reading habit. 5. Notwithstanding that mobile phone accounted for the most social media devices utilised by the students, they should be further encouraged to make productive use of mobile devices such as mobile phones and kindle as means of boosting their reading habit. 88 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 6. The findings of this study indicated that students often visit some social media sites and by implication electronic reading is gaining more acceptance. Therefore, all stakeholders in the education sector should encourage digitisation of library resources in order to make learning resources available electronically. This will provide avenue for secondary school students to read at their own pace and convenience. In addition, government should increase her budgetary allocation to the education sector in order to equip school libraries adequately. 7. In order to bridge the gap that exists between the reading habit of private and public secondary school students, conscious efforts should be made by all stakeholders to redress this established imbalance. This can be achieved by equipping public school library media centres with subject texts and other reading materials that can encourage reading. 8. Self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation having been found to jointly contribute to the reading habit of the students, the effective use of social media, encouragement of interaction among the students and boosting of students level of confidence should be adequately galvanised with a view to improving the reading habit of the students. 9. Self-esteem, having been found not to be an influencing and determining factor to reading habit of Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State, should be given special attention. This can be done when students are allowed to speak out among their peers and corrected when they go wrong, without necessarily making them feel guilty. This would boost their level of self-confidence. 10. Having established that there was a pattern of relationship among the independent variables (self-esteem, peer influence and social media utilisation) and the dependent variable (reading habit); they should be explored as potent tools for promoting good reading habit of Senior Secondary school students. 5.4 Implications of the findings The findings of this study have implications for school library media centre, school library media specialists, students, school administrators, parents, media providers and government agencies to plan for how social media can be adequately utilised in secondary schools as a means of developing good reading habit among students. The 89 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY study has shown that social media utilisation contributed significantly to the prediction of reading habit. Therefore, there is need for government and administrators to equip the school library media centres with functioning Internet-enabled media devices to encourage the cultivation of good reading habit among library users. Peer tutor is furthermore a vital factor that can enhance good reading habit; students should therefore consider group reading as a means of developing good reading skills. Furthermore, the findings of this study have implications to Senior Secondary school students in that mobile phone and laptops were largely used. Therefore, students should not just use their mobile phones for leisure alone but they should use it for something productive towards enhancement of academic achievement through good reading habit. Facebook and 2go should be used as social media sites in a way that will impact on students‟ reading habit. This way the use of social media will go a long way in reducing the rate of academic failure among the Senior Secondary school students, especially where mobile technology are employed for teaching and learning in schools. The study furthermore has implication for parents as it has been established that social media is a potent factor in developing good reading habit in their children. It is therefore necessary for parents to ensure that educative programmes and applications are installed in their children‟s mobile devices (such as mobile phones, kindle, i-pads, laptops, desktops, TV) as well as on their own. This will make reading interesting. Parents should as well establish small library within their house and provide incentives that can motivate their children and wards to develop good reading habit. Government agencies and media providers should find the outcome of this study relevant by formulating policies and develop curriculum that will encourage good reading habit among Senior Secondary school students. 5.5 Contributions to knowledge This study has contributed to knowledge in the following ways: 1. Social media utilisation enhanced students‟ reading habit. 2. Peers influence contributed significantly to students‟ reading habit. 3. Social media such as Facebook and 2Go could be utilised to enhance students‟ reading habit. 90 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4. Self-esteem had low contribution to students‟ reading habit. 5.6 Limitations of the study This study was limited by some factors, although these did not in any way invalidate the findings of this study. 1. It was difficult to access some of the private schools initially selected for the study due to the prevailing security challenge in the country. This led to more time and fund being spent, than estimated, during the data collection stage, as new set of schools have to selected. 2. This study was limited to only three variables that could influence reading habit of Senior Secondary School students whereas there are other variables that could influence Senior Secondary students‟ reading habit. Therefore, the outcome of the study may have been different if other variables were investigated. 5.7 Suggestions for further researches In view of the limitations of the study and the fact that a study of this nature cannot cover all the variables that relate to the reading habit of secondary school students, the following are hereby suggested: 1. A study could be conducted on socio-economic status, emotional intelligence, teachers‟ involvement, parental involvement, social support, gender, school type and school location. 2. The study could be replicated in other parts of the country for wider generalisation of the findings. 3. 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Repositioning school libraries in Nigeria: The catalyst for promoting reading habit among primary and secondary school students. Zhang, Shenglan and Duke, Nell K. 2008. Strategies for Internet reading with different reading purposes: A descriptive study of twelve good Internet readers. Journal of Literacy Research, 40:1, 128-162. 11 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX I CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL MEDIA RESOURCE STUDIES, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, NIGERIA Dear Respondent, The purpose of this questionnaire is purely for data collection on self-esteem, peer influence and social media. This is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Ph. D of the University of Ibadan. Kindly complete the questionnaire to enable me successfully complete the study. All responses will be treated in strict confidentiality and the anonymity of the respondent is guaranteed. Thank you. Signed Busari, R.A. SECTION A: Demographic Variables of Respondent 1. Name of School……………………………………………………………………… 2. Local Government Area……………………………………………………………… 3. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( ) 4. School type: Public ( ) Private ( ) 5. Location of school: Urban ( ) Rural ( ) 6. Class: Art ( ) Science ( ) Commercial ( ) 11 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SECTION B: SELF-ESTEEM OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (SESSSS) SCALE 7. Please, complete the items under this section as they relate to your self-esteem. (SD = Strongly disagree, D = Disagree, A – Agree, SA = Strongly agree) S/N SD D A SA How do you consider your personality? I feel that I‟m a person of worth at least on an equal 1 level with my mates 2 I feel that I have a number of good qualities 3 I feel a deep sense of fulfillment 4 I feel proud of whatever I‟m able to accomplish 5 I feel I‟m able to do things as well as most other people 6 I take a positive attitude towards myself 7 On the whole, I‟m satisfied with myself 8 I have respect for myself 9 I certainly feel confident most time 10 I consider myself as being good at times 11 I like myself 12 I feel I can stand alone some time 13 I don‟t compare myself to others 14 I don‟t bother myself with what others think about me 15 I focus more on my areas of strength sometimes 16 I don‟t see myself as responsible for others‟ failure 17 I stand up for myself sometimes 18 I tell myself the truth most of the time 19 I like being alone sometimes 11 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SECTION C: PEER INFLUENCE OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (PISSSSS) SCALE 8. Please, complete the items under this section as they relate to the influence your peers have on you. Highly Not Influenced Influenced Influenced How do you consider the influence that your mates have on you? I consider the opinion of my school mates in 1 anything I do I like to get into activities that my school mates 2 are involved in I see it as important when my school mates 3 compare me with another person Whatever my school mates do are of no 4 importance to me It makes me confident to be with my school 5 mates I feel uncomfortable being with my school 6 mates I‟ll rather be on my own than doing what my 7 school mates do My reading activities are influenced by my 8 school mates 9 I do things to impress my school mates I let my mates know what I‟m doing 10 sometimes 11 It is worthwhile to read because my school mates read 12 I try not to impress my school mates 11 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SECTION D: SOCIAL MEDIA UTILISATION OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (SNUSSSS) SCALE 9. Please, complete the items under this section as they relate to your utilisation of social media. (SD = Strongly disagree, D = Disagree, A – Agree, SA = Strongly agree) S/N I use social media to SD D A SA 1 find community of interest 2 Socialise with contacts 3 Make new friends 4 Read 5 have leisure/fun/entertain 6 source for news 7 pass away time 8 play games I utilise social media through 9 Personal/mobile phone(s) 10 My parent mobile phone(s) 11 My friends mobile phone(s) 12 Cybercafé 13 ICT Centre within the school 14 Laptop(s) 15 Desktop(s) 11 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 10. Which of the following social media do you use most? S/N Social media Never Occasionally Seldomly Mostly used used used used 1 Badoo 2 BBM 3 Clixtr 4 Diigo 5 Facebook 6 Foursquare 7 Fresqui 8 Google Talk 9 Gowalla 10 Hi5 11 Messenger 12 MySpace 13 Naigalonge 14 Orkut 15 Propeller 16 Reddit 17 Skype 18 Stumble 19 Technocrat 20 Twade 21 Twiki 22 Twitter 23 WhatsApp 24 Yelp 25 2Go 11 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY SECTION E: READING HABIT OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (RHSSSS) SCALE 11. Please, complete the items under this section as they relate to your reading habit. (SD = Strongly disagree, D = Disagree, A – Agree, SA = Strongly agree) S/N SD D A SA 1 I often read because of one or more of the following purposes: i. To pass examinations ii. To be at par with my school mates iii. Self-development iv. To while away time v. Leisure and fun-seeking vi. Acquisition of information 2 To avoid sleeping while reading, I always: i. Take coffee ii. Soak legs in water iii. Listen to music iv. Bite finger nails v. Chew gum vi. Use drugs 3 I often use my spare time to: i. Read books ii. While away time with my mates 4 I take pleasure in reading at my leisure period 5 I prefer reading in isolation 6 I most often squeeze-in time to read everyday 7 I am a keen reader 8 I don‟t feel fulfilled until I have read in a day 9 I am usually motivated to read because of the following factors: i. The book‟s cover page ii. The book‟s summary iii. Author 11 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY iv. Recommendation from my mates 10a I read this type of books always: i. Fiction ii. Non-fiction iii. Both (If you chose „both‟ option, please attempt both parts of item 10b) 10b (If you chose fiction) I read this class of fiction the most: i. Romance ii. Comics iii. Fantasies iv. Adventure v. Series 10c (If you chose non-fiction) I read this class of non- fiction the most: i. Subject texts ii. Historical books iii. Biographies iv. Autobiographies 11 My usual daily reading period: i. Less than 1 hour ii. 1 hour iii. 2-4 hours iv. 4-6 hours v. 6 hours and above 12 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX II Summary of schools and population sampled based on Senatorial Districts Senatorial Local Total Total Population Total Population District Government number of population of students population of students Area selected of in selected of in selected schools per students public students private local in public schools in private schools government schools schools Oyo North Iwajowa 6 834 250 47 44 Iseyin 8 2,466 388 523 323 Saki West 8 2,011 337 517 308 Oorelope 8 591 337 351 268 Atisbo 6 702 160 47 7 Irepo 8 518 236 209 209 Ogbomoso 8 2,160 389 988 275 South Ogo Oluwa 8 437 250 196 148 Oyo Oluyole 8 3,431 388 995 219 Central Akinyele 8 3,301 337 928 274 Atiba 8 1,665 337 438 324 Lagelu 8 2,992 160 705 151 Surulere 8 1,465 236 299 142 Ibarapa East 8 951 389 244 109 Ido 8 1,583 305 950 127 Oyo South Ibadan North 8 8,527 388 838 653 Ibadan North East 5,292 797 899 243 8 Ibadan South 374 1,970 449 West 6,471 8 Total 18 140 45,397 6,058 11,144 4,273 12 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX III Summary of questionnaire administered and the rate of return based on schools S/N % % 1. 1. Iwajowa 1. Ade-Ayo Community Inter. Coll., High School, Ijio Iganna 20 20 1 00 20 20 100 2. Iganna High 2. St. Joseph School, Iganna Catholic 3. Itile Comp. High 20 20 100 College, 20 School, Itasa Iwere-Ile 20 100 4. Ilupeju Senior 20 20 100 SGC, Iwere-Ile 20 20 1 00 2. 1. Aseyin Senior 1. Rehoboth High School, College, Iseyin 20 20 100 Iseyin 20 20 100 2. Iseyin District 2. Blue Crescent Senior Grammar College, School 20 20 1 00 Iseyin 20 20 100 3. Anwar-ul Islam 3. Double Major Senior High Coll., Iseyin 20 20 100 School 20 20 100 4. Kelani 4. Community College, Grammar Sch, Iseyin 20 20 100 Ado-Awaye 20 20 100 12 2 UNI PUBLIC SCHOOL VERSITY QTY ADMINISTERED OF QTY RETURNED IBADA PRIVATE SCHOOL N LIBR QTY ADMINISTERED A QRTYY RETURNED 3. 1. Community 1. A. D. S. Senior High Comp. Coll., School, Otun 20 20 100 Sango 20 20 100 2. Baptist Senior 1 2. Better Care High School, Sec. School 20 5 25 Saki 20 20 100 3. Sharon Rose 3. Okere Comm. College, Saki 20 20 100 Senior Grammar 4. Prime Rose School, Saki 20 20 100 Model 4. Islamic Senior College, Saki 20 20 100 High School, Komi 20 20 100 4. 1. Baptist Senior 1. Oore Oluwa High Sch., Baptist Acad., Igboho 20 20 100 Ago Molaba 20 20 100 2. Igboho More 2. C&S High Comm. Senior Sch., Igboho 20 20 100 Gram. Sch. 20 20 100 3. Ireti Ogo 3. Irepo Senior Baptist Coll., Gram. School, Oke Igboho 20 20 100 Igboho 20 20 100 4. Faith 4. Comprehensive Immaculate High Sch., Academic Igbope 20 20 100 Coll., Igboho 20 20 100 5. 1. Baptist Grammar 1. Blessing School, Ago Are 20 18 9 0 College, Ago 2. A. D. S Comp. Are 1 1 100 High Sch., Irawo 20 20 100 2. Ideal Intern. 3. Community High College 6 6 100 Sch., Irawo 20 20 100 4. A. U. D. Senior 12 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Comp. Sch., Tede 20 20 100 6. 1. Kisi Comm. 1. Baptist Gram. School, Heritage High Kisi 20 20 Sch. Ajegunle, 100 2. Iba Senior High Kisi 20 20 100 School, Kisi 20 20 100 2. Muslim 3. Lagbulu Academy Coll. Memorial High Ojukoto, Kisi 20 20 100 School 20 20 100 3. Progressive 4. Olanipekun Islamic & Comm. College, Arabic Coll., Kisi 20 20 Kisi 20 20 100 100 4. Nybrosis Coll., Kisi 20 20 100 7. 1. Baptist Senior 1. Aitch High Sch., American Ogbomoso 202 0 20 100 Model Coll., 2. Baptist Grammar Abede 20 20 100 Sch., Ahoyaya 20 20 100 20 2. Gomal Baptist 3. Muslim Grammar Coll. Araada 20 20 100 20 20 100 School 3. Divine Favour 20 4. C. A. C Senior Coll., Araada 20 20 100 Grammar School 202 0 20 100 4. Ayegun Bapt. Coll., Ajaawa 20 20 100 8. 1. Community High 1. Obada Baptist Sch. 20 19 95.5 Coll., 2. Lagbedu Orile Ogbomoso 20 20 100 Comm. High 2. Visto College, Sch. 20 20 100 Odo Oba 20 20 100 3. Community High 3. Prime Model 12 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Sch., Iwo-Ate 20 20 100 Coll. 20 20 100 4. Community 4. Oluwa Seun High, Obada 20 19 95.5 Model Coll., Orile Oje 20 - 0 9. 1. Community 1. Hallmark Coll., Secondary New Garage 20 19 95.5 School, Onipe 20 20 100 2. Hilltop High 2. Methodist Senior Sch., Ayegun 20 20 100 High School1 20 20 100 3. Adin-din 3. Muslim Gram. Intern. Coll., Sch., Odinjo Akingbade 20 7 35 Senior1 20 20 100 4. Adejare 4. Prospect High Oloyede High School, Abanla 20 14 70 Sch. 20 20 100 10. 1. Methodist Sec. 1. Besley Coll., Sch., Iware 20 20 100 Moniya 20 14 70 2. Ajibode Gram. 2. Yinbol Coll., Sch. Senior, Orogun 20 20 100 Ajibode 20 20 100 3. Imperial 3. Ojoo Senior College, Ojoo 20 16 80 High Sch., Ojoo 20 10 50 4. Great Diploma, 4. Orogun Sen. Idi Ose 20 15 75 School, Orogun 20 20 100 11. 1. Bode Thomas 1. Winners Inter. Memorial Gram. College, Oyo 20 20 100 School 20 20 100 2. Anwar-ul- 2. Alaafin High Islam Coll Oyo School, Oyo 20 20 100 20 20 100 3. God‟s Mercy 3. Community Sec. Comp. Coll., School 20 20 100 Oyo 20 20 100 12 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 4. Oranyan Senior 4. Winner Coll., Gram. School 20 20 100 Oyo 20 20 100 12. 1. Igbo Elerin 1. Adesina Coll., Gram. Sch., Ajadi 20 20 100 Igbo Elerin 20 20 100 2. Atorise Comp. 2. Monatan High Coll. Olorunda Sch., Wofun 20 20 100 Aba 20 20 100 3. Monatan High 3. Jewel Coll., Sch., Kute 20 20 100 Iwo Road 20 20 100 4. Estate High 4. Living Stone School, Akobo 20 20 100 Coll., Akobo 20 20 100 13. 1. Ifalagba Comm. 1. Shepherd High Sch., Gbena 20 20 100 Academy Snr. 2. Baptist Sec. Gram Sch., Iresaadu 20 20 100 Sch. Snr., Oko 20 19 95.5 2. United Comp. 3. Aroje/Aba Comm. College, High Sch. 20 20 100 Ogbomoso 20 20 100 4. Iresaadu Comm. 3. Juli Standard High Sch., College, Oko 20 20 100 st Iresaadu 20 20 100 4. 1 Baptist Church Academy 20 20 100 14. 1. Baptist High 1. Baptist Model School, Eruwa 20 10 50 High Sch., 2. Oke-Aako Senior Sango Eruwa 20 18 90 High Sch., 2. Goodness and Igangan 20 12 60 Mercy Coll., 20 100 3. Tapa Community Lanlate 20 High Sch., Tapa 20 10 50 3. Ifelodun Comp 4. Adegun Asake High Sch., 12 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Gram. Sch., Oke Ola 20 20 100 Igangan 20 20 100 4. Muslim High Sch., Sango, Eruwa 20 17 85 15. 1. St. Michael 1. All Saints Coll. African Church Agbofieti 20 20 100 Gram. Sch Snr 2 20 20 100 2. Alpha Royal 2. Community High College, Omi Sch., Ologuneru 20 20 100 Adio 20 20 100 3. Awotan Gram. 3. Royal Peoples Sch., Awotan 20 20 100 Coll., Osajin 20 20 100 4. Apete Ayegun 4. D Way Coll., CHS, Ayegun 20 20 100 Apete 20 20 100 16. 1. Emmanuel Coll. 1. Abiodun Metro High Sch. Snr.1 20 20 100 Coll., Barika 20 17 85 2. Islamic High 2. Achiever‟s Sch. Senior, High Sch., Basorun 20 19 95.5 Bodija 20 13 65 3. Abadina Coll. 3. God‟s Senior 20 20 100 Blessing 4. Mount Olivet Comp. Coll., Gram. Sch. Snr., Yemetu 20 18 90 Bodija 20 19 95.5 4. The Inter. Sch., Ibadan 20 20 100 17. 1. Basorun Senior 1. Best Brain High Sch., College, Basorun 20 20 100 Basorun 20 20 100 2. Holy Trinity Sen. 2. Kings and Sch., Old Ife Rd. 20 20 100 Queens Coll., 3. Mufu Lanihun Old Ife Road 20 20 100 12 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Senior Sch. 20 20 100 3. Frontliners 4. Loyola Coll. Coll., Agbala Senior Sch., Old Road 20 20 100 Ife Road 20 20 100 4. Excellence Model Coll., Iwo Road 20 20 100 18 1. Oke Bola Comp. 1. ECWA Model High Sch., Oke College, Bola 20 20 100 Challenge 20 20 100 2. IMG Gram. Sch., 2. Rochas Sharp Corner Okorocha Inter. 20 20 100 3. Oluyole Ext. Coll., Joyce B 20 20 100 High Sch. 3. Pen College, Oluyole 20 20 100 Iyaganku 20 8 40 4. Baptist Senior 4. The Vale Coll, Sec., Oke Ado 20 20 100 Iyaganku 20 20 100 1440 1389 96.5 1360 1234 90.7 12 8 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX IV List of Senior Secondary schools II (public and private) in Oyo State based on Local Government Areas S/N Local Government Total no. of Total no. of Total no. of Total no. of Area public schools students in public private schools students in private schools schools 1 Afijio 15 1002 5 114 2 Akinyele 29 3486 14 1028 3 Atiba 10 1659 4 338 4 Atisbo 9 639 2 47 5 Egbeda 26 3306 19 415 6 Ibadan North 31 5895 21 838 7 Ibadan North East 31 4641 6 899 8 Ibadan North West 10 1488 9 737 9 Ibadan South East 25 5808 10 700 10 Ibadan South West 27 5064 21 1970 11 Ibarapa Central 10 1969 7 135 12 Ibarapa East 9 922 4 242 13 Ibarapa North 7 563 3 200 14 Ido 18 1613 9 950 15 Irepo 5 527 4 209 16 Iseyin 22 2298 5 523 17 Itesiwaju 10 627 2 80 18 Iwajowa 7 800 2 144 19 Kajola 15 1886 2 79 20 Lagelu 23 2811 11 705 21 Ogbomoso North 17 2321 12 884 22 Ogbomoso South 21 2104 4 988 23 Ogo-Oluwa 12 854 2 196 24 Olorunsogo 4 430 4 104 25 Oluyole 28 3515 23 995 26 Ona Ara 21 3546 11 541 27 Oorelope 7 567 4 351 28 Oriire 17 885 2 73 29 Oyo East 11 1643 4 320 30 Oyo West 8 1067 8 598 31 Saki East 10 599 2 69 32 Saki West 12 1847 9 517 33 Surulere 22 1372 4 299 529 67754 247 16288 Source: Ministry of Education, Oyo State (2014) and Teaching Service Commission, Oyo State (2014) 12 9 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX V List of Senior Secondary school two (public and private) sampled based on Senatorial District Senatorial LGA Public schools No in Private schools No in District class class 1. Oyo 1. Iwajowa 1. Iwajowa Community 1. Adebayo College, North High School, Ijio 110 Iganna 20 2. Iganna High School, 2. St. Joseph College, Iganna 70 Iwere-Ile 24 3. Itile Comprehensive High School, Itasa 30 4. Ilupeju Senior SGC, Iwere-Ile 40 2. Iseyin 1. Aseyin Senior High 1. Rehoboth College, School, Iseyin 75 Iseyin 65 2. Iseyin District 2. Blue Crescent College, Senior Gram. Sch. 212 Iseyin 36 3. Anwar-ul Islam 3. Double Major College, Senior High Sch. 36 Iseyin 173 4. Community Gram. 4. Kilani College, Iseyin 49 Sch., Ado-Awaye 65 3. Saki West 1. Community Senior 1. A. U. D. Society Comp. High Sch., Saki 101 High School, Sango 71 2. Baptist Senior 1 2. Better Care Sec. High Sch. Saki 96 School, 31 3. Okere Comm Senior 3. Sharon Rose College, Gram. Sch., Saki 35 Saki 90 4. Islamic Senior High 4. Prime Rose Model School, Komi 105 College, Saki 110 4. Oorelope 1. Baptist Senior High 1. Oore Oluwa Baptist Sch., Igboho 112 Academy, Ago Molaba 87 2. Igboho More Comm. 2. C&S High Sch., Igboho 95 Senior Gram. Sch. 121 3. Ireti Ogo Baptist Coll., 13 0 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3. Irepo Senior Gram. Oke Igboho 60 School, Igboho 42 4. Faith Immaculate 4. Comprehensive Academy Coll., Igboho 26 High Sch., Igbope 62 5. Atisbo 1. Baptist Gram. Sch., 1. Blessing Coll., Ago Are 21 Ago Are 26 2. Ideal International Coll. 26 2. Comprehensive High Sch., Irawo 20 3. A. U. D. Senior Comp. Sch., Tede 42 4. Community High Sch., Irawo 72 6. Irepo 1. Kisi Comm. Gram. 1. Baptist Heritage High School, Kisi 96 Sch., Ajegunle, Kisi 26 2. Iba Senior High 2. Muslim Academy Sch., Kisi 74 College, Ojukoto, Kisi 63 3. Lagbulu Memorial 3. Progressive Islamic and High School 24 Arabic College, Kisi 58 4. Olanipekun Comm. 4. Nybrosis College, Kisi 62 College, Kisi 42 7. Ogbomoso 1. Baptist Senior High 1. Aitch American Model South Sch., Ogbomoso 102 College, Abede 67 2. Baptist Senior Gram. 2. Gomal Baptist College Sch., Ahoyaya 137 Araada 167 3. C. A. C Senior 3. Divine Favour College, Gram. Sch. 104 Araada 60 4. Abubakar Comm. 4. Ayegun Baptist Church, High Sch. Snr. 46 Along Ajaawa Road 81 2. Oyo 1. Ogo Oluwa 1. Obada Comm. 1. Obada Baptist Coll., Central Senior High Sch. 32 Odo Oba Ogbomoso 52 2. Lagbedu Orile 2. Oluwaseun Model Comm. High Sch. 94 Coll., Orile Oje, 3. Community High Ogbomoso 42 13 1 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY Sch., Iwo-Ate 102 3. Prime Academy, Odo- 4. Community High Oba, Ogbomoso 21 Sch., Ajaawa 77 4. Visto Coll. Odo-Oba 33 2. Oluyole 1. Community Sec. 1. Hallmark College, New Sch., Onipe 102 Garage 97 2. Methodist Senior 2. Hilltop High School, High Sch.1 142 Ayegun 57 3. Moslem Gram. Sch., 3. Adin-din International Odinjo Senior1 74 Coll., Akingbade 41 4. Prospect High 4. Adejare Oloyede High School, Abanla 70 Sch. 24 3. Akinyele 1. Methodist Sec. Sch., 1. Besley College, Moniya 107 Iware 149 2. Yibol College, Orogun 57 2. Ajibode Gram. Sch. 3. Imperial College, Ojoo 70 Senior, Ajibode 192 4. Great Diploma, Idi Ose 40 3. Ojoo Senior High School, Ojoo 205 4. Orogun Senior School, Orogun 251 4. Atiba 1. Community Sec. 1. Winners International School, Ijawaya 32 College, Oyo 90 2. Oranyan Senior 2. Anwar-ul-Islam Gram. Sch., Oyo 137 College, Oyo 75 3. Alaafin Senior High 3. God‟s Mercy Comp. Sch., Oyo 163 Coll., Bhd. Alaafin H/S 87 4. Bode Thomas 4. Winner College, Oyo 72 Memorial Senior Gram. Sch., Oyo 42 5. Lagelu 1. Igbo Elerin Gram. 1. Adesina College, Ajadi 27 Sch., Bangbola Snr. 91 2. Atorise Comp. College, 2. Monatan High Sch. Olorunda Aba 47 Senior, Wofun 75 3. Jewel College, 3. Monatan High Academy, Iwo Road 43 13 2 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY School4, Kute 84 4. Living Stone College, 4. Estate High School, Akobo 34 Akobo 42 6. Surulere 1. Iresaadu Senior High 1. Shepherd Academy Sch., Iresaadu 72 Senior Sch., Iresaadu 46 2. Ifalagba Community 2. United Comprehensive High Sch., Gbena 42 College, Ogbomoso 32 3. Baptist Sec. Gram. 3. Juli Standard College, Sch. Senior, Oko 83 Oke Ola, Oko 24 st 4. Aroje/Aba 4. 1 Baptist Church Community High Academy 40 Sch., 70 3. Oyo 1. Ibarapa 1. Baptist High School, 1. Baptist Model High South East Ayete 74 Sch., Sango Eruwa 18 2. Oke Aako Senior 2. Goodness and Mercy High Sch., Igangan 83 College, Lanlate 36 3. Tapa Community 3. Ifelodun Comp. High High Sch., Tapa 40 Sch., Oke Ola 37 4. Adegun Asake 4. Muslim High Sch., Gram. Sch., Igangan 25 Sango, Eruwa 18 2. Ido 1. St. Michael African 1. All Saints College, Church Gram. Sch. Agbofieti 30 Senior 2 70 2. Alpha Royal College, 2. Community High Omi Adio 40 Sch., Ologuneru 97 3. Life Forte International 3. Awotan Gram. Sch., College, Awotan 101 Awotan 174 4. D Way College, Apete 37 4. Apete Ayegun CHS, Ayegun 102 3. Ibadan 1. Emmanuel Coll. 1. Abiodun Metro Coll., North High Sch. Snr.1 157 Barika, UI 34 2. Islamic High Sch. 2. Achiever‟s High Sch., Senior, Basorun 102 Bodija 42 13 3 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY 3. Abadina Coll. Senior 149 3. Oritamefa Baptist 4. Mount Olivet Gram. Model Coll., Oritamefa 351 Sch. Snr., Bodija 288 2. International School, Ibadan 226 4. Ibadan 1. Basorun Senior High 1. Best Brain College, North East Sch., Basorun 241 Basorun 79 2. Holy Trinity Senior 2. Kings and Queens Sch., Old Ife Road 270 College, Old Ife Road 89 3. Mufu Lanihun 3. Frontliners Coll. Bishop Senior Sch. 331 Akinyele Anglican 4. Loyola Coll. Senior Church 48 Sch., Old Ife Road 380 4. Excellence Model College, Iwo Road 27 5. Ibadan 1. African Church 1. ECWA Model College, South West Gram. Sch., Apata 153 Challenge 78 2. IMG Gram. Sch., 2. Rochas Okorocha Sharp Corner 232 Intern. Coll., Joyce B 201 3. Oluyole Extension 3. Pen College, Iyaganku 20 High Sch., Oluyole 215 4. The Vale College, 4. Urban Day Gram. Iyaganku 150 Sch., Ring Road 197 Source: Ministry of Education, Oyo State (2014) and Teaching Service Commission, Oyo State (2014) 13 4 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX VI Summary of research questions, source of data and data analysis strategies S/N Research questions Respondents Source of data Data analysis strategies 1 What is the level of reading Senior Survey Descriptive statistics habit of Senior Secondary Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, school students in Oyo State? school II in percentages and means/SD Oyo State 2 What is the level of self- Senior Survey Descriptive statistics esteem of Senior Secondary Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, school students in Oyo State? school II in percentages and means/SD Oyo State 3 What is the level of peer Senior Survey Descriptive statistics influence among Senior Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, Secondary school students in school II in percentages and means/SD Oyo State? Oyo State 4 What is the purpose of social Senior Survey Descriptive statistics media usage by Senior Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, Secondary school students in school II in percentages and means/SD Oyo State? Oyo State 5 What are the means of Senior Survey Descriptive statistics utilisation of social media Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, sites by Senior Secondary school II in percentages and means/SD school students in Oyo State? Oyo State 6 What is the most used social Senior Survey Descriptive statistics media by Senior Secondary Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, school students in Oyo State? school II in percentages and means/SD Oyo State 7 What is the difference Senior Survey Descriptive statistics between the reading habit of Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, public and private secondary school II in percentages and means/SD school students in Oyo State? Oyo State 8 What are the joint Senior Survey Descriptive statistics contributions of self-esteem, Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, peer influence, social media school II in percentages and means/SD utilisation to reading habit of Oyo State Senior Secondary school students in Oyo State? 9 What is the relative Senior Survey Descriptive statistics contribution of self-esteem, Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, peer influence and social school II in percentages and means/SD media utilisation to the Oyo State students‟ reading habit in Oyo State? 10 What is the pattern of Senior Survey Descriptive statistics relationships that exist among Secondary questionnaire specifically frequencies, the independent and school II in percentages and means/SD dependent variables? Oyo State 13 5 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX VII List of retrieved questionnaires S/N SENATORIAL S/N LOCAL QUANTITY QUANTITY % ZONE GOVT. DISTRIBUTED RETRIEVED QR AREA 1 Oyo North 1 Iwajowa 120 120 100 2 Iseyin 160 160 100 3 Saki West 160 145 91 4 Oorelope 160 160 100 5 Atisbo 87 80 92 6 Irepo 160 160 100 7 Ogbomoso 160 160 100 South 2 Oyo Central 1 Ogo Oluwa 160 138 86 2 Oluyole 160 140 100 3 Akinyele 160 135 84 4 Atiba 160 160 100 5 Lagelu 160 160 100 6 Surulere 160 159 99 3 Oyo South 1 Ibarapa East 160 127 79 2 Ido 160 160 100 3 Ibadan 160 146 91 North 4 Ibadan 160 160 100 North East 5 Ibadan 160 148 100 South West Total 2767 2623 95 13 6 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY APPENDIX VIII 13 7 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY