Sociology
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Item SAND MINING, LAND DEGRADATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN EVBUOBANOSA, EDO STATE,NIGERIA(2023-06) NWALI,E.O.Sand Mining (SM) is the extraction of sand aggregate from land surface and water bodies. Globally, sand is a critical resource for construction purposes. In Nigeria, SM is a process that degenerates into land degradation and conflict involving a network of people and structures. Extant studies have focused more on sand extraction and environmental degradation than its associated structures and conflicts. This study, therefore, examined land degradation and conflict management due to SM, with a view to determining the extent of SM, the structural organisations involved, livelihood implications of resultant land degradation, the networks of associated conflict and the conflict management mechanisms in Evbuobanosa Dukedom, Edo State, Nigeria. Theory of Ecological Marxism guided the study, while the exploratory design was adopted. Qualitative data were purposively collected from Abudu, Evbuobanosa and Iru communities. Secondary data were sourced from the records of Federal Ministry of Mines and Steel, Benin-city office. Key Informant Interviews were conducted with 10 community leaders, six youth leaders, four pit owners and four environmental management experts. In-depth interviews were conducted with 40 sand miners, four SM association leaders, six tipper drivers, 18 farmers and eight fishermen. Eighteen Focus Group Discussion sessions were held with sand miners (9), farmers (4) and community members (5). Two case studies were also conducted with sand miners. Data were content-analysed. Sand was mined extensively, legally and illegally. Most mining sites (81.4%) were illegal with depth of 1-3 meters, each covering about 1011m2 and mined until stopped by regulators. Illegal miners thereafter, moved elsewhere to continue mining. Legal mines had depths ranging from 25-34 meters covering between 1011m2-32,374m2 and could reach down to the water table. The structural organisation of SM included the positional elites: community elders and legal miners, and artisanal working-class, illegal miners, mine workers, tipper loaders and drivers. Legal miners had renewable five-year mining permits. Site operations were largely mechanised and performed by three principal workers: manager, cashier and machine operators under close monitoring of legal miners to forestall fraud. Illegal mining was executed manually, on land and in water with slightly differing structures. On land, sand scouts/encroachers, loaders and drivers were involved, while diver-excavator, jerker (sand shoveler from canoe to beach), tipper drivers and loaders were involved in water excavation. Sand mining exacerbated flooding and induced landslides with devastating impact on the farmers. The SM drove aquatic lives out of the reach of fishermen. Legal and illegal miners clashed over sites and with indigenes. The conflict networks included guilds, kins, and fraternities: Asigidi, Osokpikan, Ogboni, Vikings, Black Axe, and Eiye among other fraternities. Conflict management mechanisms included negotiation and appeasement between parties. Unresolved cases were referred to the elders’ council, Ogwedion, where defaulting parties were sanctioned with traditional fines: Odegbeˋn’ekpetin. Sand mining in Evbuobanosa, Edo State is structured on positional elite-artisanal working class relational-platform, accommodated by traditional arrangements and legal-rational permits. Its conflict management mechanisms were based on traditional institutions. Government needs to implement sustainable mining regulations to minimise land degradation.Item THE SOCIAL COST OF FARMER-HERDER CONFLICTS IN ISEYIN,OYO STATE, NIGERIA(2023-03) AROYEWUN, A. O.Farmer-herder conflict is one of the most prevalent violent occurrences in West Africa with attendant social cost, which include livelihood and socio-relational consequences. There have been frequent farmer-herder conflicts in Nigeria, which have resulted inmassive destruction of lives and property. Most studies on farmer-herder conflicts have focused mainly on causes, damages and casualties, with little attention paid to the social cost. This study, therefore, examined the effects of the conflicts on farmer andherder livelihoods, family structure and their symbiotic relationship, as well as the management structure employed to curtail farmer-herder conflicts in Iseyin, Oyo State. Group Conflict Theory was adopted as framework while the exploratory design was employed. Purposive sampling technique was used to select communities that experienced incessant farmer-herder conflicts at Iseyin. Snowball sampling technique was used to select the farmer and herder respondents. Two key informant interviews were conducted with leaders of farmers and herders. Sixty in-depth interviews were conducted with 30 farmers and 30 herders selected at Seraphim (6 farmers, 6 herders), Baale-sagbo (4 farmers, 5 herders), Awaye (6 farmers, 6 herders), Aba-paanu (5 farmers, 5 herders), Olugbade (4 farmers, 5 herders), Sangote (2 farmers, 2 herders) and Alagbe (3 farmers, 3 herders). Data were content-analysed. The prevalence of farmer-herder conflicts had adversely affected four principal elements of farmer and herder livelihood − security, income, health and education. Farmers and herders lived in constant fear of attack and destruction of lives and property. Also, farmers had witnessed significant decrease in farm produce because of the incessant destruction of farms; and herders lost herds due to retaliatory rustling and poisoning. There was a reduction in the income of farmers and herders owing to low output. Loss of income resulted in farmers’ failure to repay loans. Farmers accessed community healthcare, but herders had limited access to health facilities. The children of farmers and herders experienced disruption of their education as a result of their parents’ inability to pay the required fees. The families of both farmers and herders lost male breadwinners and family members, and made unplanned relocation to other communities. Prior to remarriage, farmers’ widows assumed the roles of family heads but the widows of herders were integrated into the extended family structure. Farmer-herder conflicts had made the symbiotic relationship of farmers and herders to degenerate into inter-community mistrust and discouragement of inter-communal marriages. It had also truncated intercommunity business relations. The conflict management strategies adopted by the herders and farmers included reporting incidence of conflict to group leaders and the police. That, in some instances, led to the compensation of aggrieved parties. The social cost of the conflicts between farmers and herders in Iseyin had a debilitating impact on their livelihoods and inter-group relations. Reports to group leaders and state authorities had brought about some compensation and peace to the communities. Farmers and herders should adopt conciliatory strategies to manage disagreements in peace and conflict periods.