Environmental Health

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MALARIA TREATMENT OUTCOME AMONG UNDER-FIVE CHILDREN ATTENDING PRIMARY HEALTH CARE CENTRES IN UMUAHIA NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ABIA STATE NIGERIA
(2010-10) MOSES, A.O.
Malaria remains a major health problem in Africa where one child in 10 dies before the age of five years. Despite the availability of affordable preventive/curative interventions in the Primary Health Centres (PHC) in Nigeria, morbidity and mortality from malaria remains high. This study was carried out to determine factors associated with malaria treatment outcome of under-five children that were treated for malaria at the PHC facilities in Umuahia North Local Government Area (LGA) of Abia State. An analytical cross sectional study involving caregivers of children less than five years attending PHCs in Umuahia North LGA was carried out. A three stage sampling technique was used to select four of 31 PHCs, at Amaogwugwu, Umuawa-Alaocha, Ojike and World Bank Housing Estate, based on site and population of under-five attendees. Key Informant Interview (KII) was carried out with the PHC coordinator of the LGA and heads of the four selected PHC facilities to assess their knowledge and practices of malaria treatment. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered on caregivers of 562 consecutive children presenting with fever to determine factors associated with malaria treatment outcome. Outcome was considered good when a sick child recovers within 48hrs of commencing treatment. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Chi square test and logistic regression at 5% level of significance. From KII, the facility health workers based malaria treatment on presumptive diagnosis. Median age for children was 24 months (Range = 2 – 59 months) and mean age of caregivers was 32.5 ± 6.6 years. Two hundred and fifty-five (45.4%) of the children were brought to the health centre early. Among the mothers, 355 (63.2%) had been taught homecare of malaria. At presentation, 48 (8.5%) of the children had anaemia; 248 (44.1%) of them were sleeping under Insecticide Treated Nets (ITN). About 416 (74%) of the children had good treatment outcome. More children (77.9%) treated on outpatient basis had a good treatment outcome compared with those who were admitted for observation (22.1%) p < 0.05. Also, a higher proportion of children presenting without anaemia (76.7%) had a significantly good treatment outcome compared with those that presented with anaemia (23.3%). Presence of anaemia [O.R 0.25 (C.I 0.13-0.500)] and being admitted [O.R 3.40 (C.I 2.22-6.49)], were both associated with poor treatment outcome. Providing health education on homecare of malaria to caregiver [O.R 3.85 (C.I 2.31-5.55)], making a child to sleep under ITN [O.R 2.37 (C.I 1.52-3.71)] and taking a sick child early to the health centre [O.R 2.07 (C.I 1.34-3.18)], were all significant predictors of good treatment outcome. Educating caregivers on home management of malaria for their children, children sleeping under insecticide treated nets and taking sick children to the health centre promptly would improve malaria treatment outcome in the health centres.
PREVALENCE AND CORRELATES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST FEMALE SEX WORKERS (FSWs) IN ABUJA, NIGERIA
(2011-05) ABOSEDE, D.T.
Violence against women (VAW) is a major public health problem affecting women globally. In addition to causing injuries and eroding women’s self esteem, violence increases the risk of reproductive health problems. However, only little is known about the magnitude and determinants of violence in female sex workers (FSWs) in Nigeria. This study assessed the prevalence and the risk factors that contribute to violence against FSWs in Abuja A descriptive cross-sectional study design was adopted. Three hundred and five brothel-based FSWs were selected using stratified random sampling and proportional allocation techniques. One hundred and ten FSWs from the high, 63 from the middle and 132 from the low income areas were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Information on occurrence of violence and predisposing factors was obtained from the respondents. In-depth interviews were conducted on 10 FSWs to obtain better insight into their recent experiences of violence. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square tests and logistic regression analysis. Mean age of the respondents was 27+5.7 years. Seventy five percent had at least secondary education and majority (69.5%) were single. The prevalence of violence experienced by FSWs in the last six months was 52.8% of which 61% had been abused between once and thrice at some point in their lives. The forms of violence experienced among respondents included physical (38.7%), sexual (43.3%), psychological (32.5%) and economic (29.2%). The main perpetrators of violence were clients (47.5%), brothel managers/ owners (38.2%), local thugs (8.0%) and police men (4.0%). Bi-variate analysis showed that respondents below 30 years were less prone to physical violence than their older counterparts (P-value= 0.00). FSWs from who never attended school experienced sexual violence than those who ever attended school (p-value= 0.02). The FSWs with no formal education and those with over 10 years work experience in the sex industry were at a higher risk of psychological violence than those with formal education and with less than 10 years work experience (OR=2.6, 95% C.I= 1.37-5.08 and OR=2.3, 95%CI=1.26-4.31 respectively). Respondents with over 10 years experience in sex work were more vulnerable to economic violence than those with less than 10 years sex work experience (OR=1.9, 95%CI=1.01-3.52). Major health consequences reported were physical injury (14.1%), HIV infection (4.3%) and 10.5% reported ever had STI. Sixty percent accessed services at health facilities while 29.3% used traditional healing homes after they experienced violence. The results from the in-depth interviews showed that violence was a common experience among the respondents with clients and policemen being the main perpetrators. The prevalence of violence against FSWs in Abuja was high. Therefore, there is need to educate FSWs on their sexual rights and how to protect themselves from violence. In addition, FSWs require educational and economic empowerment to enable them move on to other more socially acceptable vocations.
HYGIENE FACTORS INFLUENCING OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS AMONG PEOPLE LIVING WITH HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS AND ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME IN ABUJA, NIGERIA
(2011-09) ARCHIBONG, O.E.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is one of the most devastating global health pandemics. The immune suppression of infected persons predisposes them to opportunistic infections resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Factors influencing HIV/AIDS in Nigeria are known; however, the influences of physical environmental factors on People Living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHAs) in Nigeria have not been fully explored. This study was therefore designed to investigate the association between these factors and the occurrence of Opportunistic Infections (OIs) among PLWHAs in Abuja. A case control study was conducted. PLWHAs in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) were randomly selected from the six area councils in FCT. Two health facilities were randomly selected by balloting from the nine that provides special services to PLWHAs in AMAC. Systematic random sampling was used to recruit 66 cases and 68 controls from the facilities. Cases were defined as HIV positive clients with OIs while controls were defined as confirmed HIV positive clients not manifesting OIs. Opportunistic Infections considered were Tuberculosis (TB), persistent diarrhea, oral thrush and herpes. The controls were matched by sex, age and residential area. Respondents’ demographic characteristics, level of knowledge and hygiene practices were assessed using a validated questionnaire. The level of knowledge of Environmental Influence on Health (EIH) was determined using 40 point scale. Observational checklist was used to assess the prevailing environmental conditions in households. Bacteriological examination of drinking water sources of 25.0% of cases and controls was conducted using standard methods as described by the American Public Health Association. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square and t-test were used for data analysis. Respondents’ mean age was 35.9 ± 6.7years for cases and 34.4 ± 7.0years for controls. About 48.6% and 51.4% of cases and controls respectively were females. The OIs manifested by cases were TB (56.6%), oral thrush (77.4%), persistent diarrhea (69.8%) and herpes (11.3%). The mean knowledge scores on EIH of cases and controls were 31.7 ± 8.9 and 29.0± 13.1 with no significant different. Majority of the cases (75.8%) and control (70.6%) washed their hands with soap after toilet use. Also 66.7% of cases and controls (68.7%) used water closets for excreta disposal. About twenty four percent of cases as against nine percent of controls obtained drinking water from contaminated sources (OR: 3.25; 95%CI: 1.09 – 10.14). Bacteriological analysis of client drinking water sources indicated that 76.0% of samples for cases and 64.3% for controls contained total coliform, while E.coli was detected in 21.4%, and 15.4% of samples for cases and controls respectively. The occurrence of water borne opportunistic infections among the cases may be attributable to contaminated drinking water sources. Provision of water especially potable water supply and continuing health education on hygiene practices are highly advocated.
Urban environmental noise pollution and perceived health effects in Ibadan, Nigeria
(2012) Oloruntoba, E. O; Ademola, R. A.; Sridhar, M. K. C.; Agbola, S. A.; Omokhodion, F. O.; Ana, G. R. E; Alabi, R. T
Urban environmental noise pollution has impact on the quality of life and it is a serious health and social problem. The aim of this study was to assess the sources and noise levels, and possible impacts in selected residential neighbourhoods of Ibadan metropolis. Structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from respondents on demographic and neighbourhood characteristics, sources of noise and perceived effects of noise pollution. Noise level meter was used to determine the noise levels. Results showed that noise levels, sources and the period the noise level reaches its peak vary with population density and are shown on GIS maps. The mean noise values for the three residential neighbourhood groups were low density (LD), 53.10±2.80dB; medium density (MD), 68.45± 2.10dB and high density (HD), 68.36±1.92dB with the medium density neighbourhoods having the highest mean value. There is a significant difference in the noise levels in the three neighbourhood groups (F value=11.88 and p=0.000). However, the difference in noise levels between HD/LD and LD/MD areas was significant (p=0.000) while that between HD/MD areas was not significant (p=0.975). Of the three residential neighbourhoods, the highest mean noise level (85.80dB) was recorded at Bere junction while the lowest was at the foot of Bowers tower at Oke Are (48.65dB). Based on WHO 16-hour DNL criteria of 55dB for residential areas, only 16 (23.2%) locations in the three residential neighbourhood groups had noise values that were within the recommended limit. The study concludes that there is a need for formulation and enforcement of permissible noise levels/standards for residential neighbourhoods by the Federal Ministry of Environment instead of using the current eight-hour standard of 90dB which is for industrial settings.
WORK ENVIRONMENT NOISE LEVELS AND AUDITORY STATUS OF GENERATOR USERS IN AGBOWO AND AJIBODE AREAS OF IBADAN, NIGERIA
(2012-05) YESUFU, A. L.
The increasing use of electric generators in small scale businesses is predicated on the erratic and inadequate power supply in Nigeria. Electric generators produce noise at levels capable of inducing hearing impairment. Hitherto, few studies have assessed the auditory status of generator users in Nigeria. This study was designed to compare the work environment noise levels and auditory status of generator users in two areas where generators are used in Ibadan. A comparative cross sectional study was conducted in Agbowo (high generator use) and Ajibode (low generator use) areas of Ibadan. Noise levels of work environment were measured using calibrated AEMC sound meter. Measurements were made before business activity commenced (6am-8am), at the peak of business activity (11am-1pm) and at the close of business activity (4pm-6pm) for a period of 12weeks. Generator characteristics were documented with a checklist. All 515 generator users in both communities (Agbowo: 304, Ajibode: 211) were surveyed. Information on socio-demographic characteristics and pattern of generator use were obtained with a pretested interviewer administered questionnaire. One hundred and twenty two and 84 users who reported daily generator use in Agbowo and Ajibode respectively were recruited for audiologic evaluation. Audiometric measurements were done with calibrated Maico MA27 audiometer. Hearing impairment was defined as audiologic values of >50dB in both ears while excessive noise levels in work environment was defined as > 70dB(A) in accordance with WHO standards. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square test and Logistic regression. The average noise level around the work environment in Agbowo (78.5±3.9dB(A)) significantly exceeded the WHO standard [65-70dB(A)] compared with Ajibode (59.7±4.4dB(A)). The maximum noise level obtained was during the peak activity period of 11am-1pm; Agbowo: 84.4±8.74dB(A) versus Ajibode: 69.9±4.65dB(A) (p<0.05). The mean generator noise levels in Agbowo and Ajibode were 100.5±7.5dB(A) and 91.2±4.86dB(A) respectively (p<0.05). The proportion of diesel engines in Agbowo (65.0%) exceeded those in Ajibode (10.0%). The mean age of generator users in Agbowo and Ajibode were 25.4±5.4 years and 24.8±5.8 years respectively. The average daily generator use were [Agbowo: 5.5±1.7 hours/day and Ajibode: 2.1±1.1 hours/day] respectively (p<0.05). The mean distance of generator to users was significantly lower in Agbowo (1.9±1.5m) than in Ajibode (5.6±4.1m). More respondents in Agbowo (60.0%) compared with those in Ajibode (19.0%) placed their generators indoors during business activity (p<0.05). The audiometric assessment revealed pure tone average of 59.6±11.7 dB and 44.5±14.7 dB for generator users in Agbowo and Ajibode respectively (p<0.05). The proportion of those with hearing impairment in Agbowo and Ajibode were 75.6% and 34.5% respectively (p<0.05). Hearing impairment was higher among generator users in Agbowo compared with their counterparts in Ajibode (OR: 5.9, 95%CI: 3.2-10.8). Noise levels in Agbowo area exceeded the standard for work environment and the burden of hearing impairment is high in the two areas. The use of sound-proof generators and ear plugs are recommended to ameliorate the potential effect of generator noise on hearing.
PREVALENCE AND DETERMINANTS OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE TOWARDS FEMALE STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, NIGERIA.
(2012-05) UMANA, J.E.
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is pervasive, but under-reported by victims because of the associated stigma and fear of reprisals. In Nigeria, there is paucity of information on IPV burden among female university students. This study was therefore designed to assess the prevalence and determinants of IPV experienced by female students in the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. The study was cross-sectional in design. A four-stage sampling technique was used in selecting the female halls (two undergraduate and one postgraduate), blocks, rooms, and an occupant selected by balloting in each room. A total of 1,100 undergraduate and 255 postgraduate female students were selected. A 43-item self-administered structured questionnaire was used to collect data on the sociodemographic characteristics, prevalence, types, determinants, awareness, and health consequences of IPV. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression at p = 0.05. The mean age of the respondents was 22.8±3.9 years (postgraduate mean: 24.3±3.2 years; undergraduate mean: 20.1±3.2 years) and majority (93.8%) were single. Respondents comprised Yoruba (61.7%), Igbo (24.6%), Hausa (3.6%) and others (10.1%). The proportions of respondents who smoked, consumed alcohol and had a family history of IPV were 6.6%, 22.8% and 26.9% respectively. The life-time prevalence of IPV was 42.3% (postgraduate: 34.5%; undergraduate: 44.1%) and those for psychological, physical and sexual IPV were 41.8%, 7.9% and 6.6% respectively. Majority (61.9%) of the respondents who were aware of IPV did not experience it. Respondents who were less likely to have experienced IPV were postgraduate (OR= 0.64; 95% CI: 0.46-0.87), and married (OR= 0.53; 95% CI: 0.35-0.78) students. Life-time prevalence of IPV was higher among the undergraduates (OR=3.82; 95% CI: 1.08-13.40); smokers (OR= 2.46; 95% CI: 1.58-3.83); alcohol consumers (OR= 2.36; 95% CI: 1.82- 3.06 ); and those with family history of IPV (OR= 2.40; 95% CI: 1.88- 3.07). Recent experience (within the last one year) of violence was also more frequently reported by respondents who had a previous history of physical (62.5%) (OR= 2.65; 95% CI: 2.02-3.49) and sexual (53.2%) (OR= 1.63; 95% CI:1.12-2.35) violence. Injuries were sustained by sixty (4.4%) of the IPV victims and these included minor abrassions (60.7%), sprains (17.9%), and facial injuries (15.4%). Adverse effects of IPV on academic performance were reported by 10.3% of victims and these included loss of concentration (71.4%), interruption of studies (17.9%), loss of self-esteem (6.4%) and school absenteeism (4.3%). Majority (60.9%) of the victims of IPV did not seek help. Those who sought help went mainly to religious leaders (12.5%), hospitals (10.5%) and family members (4.9%). The prevalence of intimate partner violence among the female students of the University of Ibadan was high, and the major predicting factors were low level of awareness, family history and previous history of physical and sexual violence. There is the need to design interventions to address modifiable risk factors like smoking and alcohol consumption, and encourage health seeking in order to reduce vulnerability and related health consequences.
HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATIONS IN WATER , Clarias gariepinus and Tilapia guineensis FROM AGODI LAKE IN IBADAN
(2012-08) UKACHUKWU, L. K.
The presence of heavy metals in food remains an issue of public health concern. At low concentrations above threshold limit, they are poisonous and can lead to toxicity in humans. Several studies have assessed heavy metals concentration in water and fish from different lakes but there is paucity of information on Agodi lake in Ibadan, a recipient of treated effluent from the sewage treatment facility of the University College Hospital (UCH) and also a source of drinking water and fish for human consumption. The study was therefore designed to assess the concentration of heavy metals in water and two fish species (Clarias gariepinus and Tilapia guineensis) from the lake. A laboratory based study was adopted. Fish and water samples were collected weekly at different locations from Agodi lake for four consecutive weeks between June and July, 2009 and analysed for physicochemical parameters using the American Public Health Association (APHA) standard method. The parameters included, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), lead, cadmium, chromium, zinc and copper. At each sampling, six fish were randomly collected per specie. The body weight and length of each sample were measured, dissected and liver, gill, skin and muscle tissues were removed for analysis. The tissue samples were oven dried at 110 0C and homogenised. The homogenised tissue samples were acid digested and analysed for heavy metals using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Results obtained for heavy metal concentration were compared with National Guideline Limits (NGL), Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) and World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline limits. Descriptive statistics, t-test and ANOVA were used for the data analysis. The mean pH and DO levels in water were 7.20 ± 0.31 and 4.39 ± 2.08 mg/L respectively. The mean concentrations (mg/L) of heavy metals in water were: 0.01±0.01 (cadmium) ; 0.01 ± 0.01 (chromium); 0.02 ± 0.01 (copper); 0.04±0.01 (zinc); 0.06±0.04 (lead). These were within SON and WHO permissible limit except Lead (Pb) which was above 0.01 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L limits respectively. The heavy metal with the highest concentration found in both fish species was Zinc and the one with the least concentration was Cadmium. The mean concentrations (mg/kg) of heavy metals in cat fish were, 0.73±0.25 (cadmium) ; 4.8 ± 0.34 (chromium) ; 7.51±1.8 (lead) ; 17.62±0.27 (copper) ; 119.22±0.51 (zinc) while those of tilapia fish were, 0.48 ±0.22 (cadmium); 3.57±1.13 (chromium); 7.91 ± 1.69 (lead); 17.37±0.34 (copper) ; 176.82±0.27 (zinc). All heavy metals assessed in fish were above WHO and National guideline limits. There was no significant difference in concentrations among heavy metals within each fish specie and no significant difference in heavy metals between species except zinc ( p<0.05). The release of heavy metals into Agodi lake has increased the risk of its use as source of water for human activities and the consumption of resident fin-fishes. The need for adoption and enforcement of appropriate monitoring and management strategies for the protection of the lake is therefore important.
FOOD SAFETY AND HYGIENE CONDITIONS IN SELECTED PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS WITH BOARDING FACILITIES IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
(2013-01) IMAM, M. I.
Cases of food contamination and poisoning in boarding schools have been reported in Nigeria. Although researches have been carried out on food safety in Nigerian schools, not many studies were conducted in boarding schools despite the health implications of consuming unsafe food. This study was designed to assess the food safety and hygiene conditions in selected Public Secondary Schools with Boarding Facilities(PSSBF) in Ibadan, Nigeria. Stratified random sampling technique was used to select five out of ten PSSBF in Ibadan. A semi-structured interviewer administered questionnaire was used to elicit information on Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) of food safety and hygiene among 59 food handlers. A 40, 24 and 30 point scales was used to assess the food handlers KAP respectively. Food hazards and sanitary conditions were assessed by direct observation using a 30-item checklist. Forty-two food samples were collected immediately after cooking from kitchens and dining halls of schools. Food holding temperature was measured by inserting thermocouple in the mid region of the food samples. Borehole, well and Tap water samples used for dish-washing, cooking and drinking were collected from the schools. Food and water samples were assessed for bacteria using pour plate and multiple tube method and results expressed in cfu/g and cfu/ml respectively. Values obtained from analysis of food and water samples were compared with United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) respectively. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square test, t-test and ANOVA were used for data analysis at p=0.05 Mean age of food handlers was 34.5±10.1 years. Mean Knowledge Attitude and Practice scores on food safety was 26.9±4.9, 13.4±3.2 and 21.9±3.8 respectively. Objects observed in food sampled were artificial finger nails, drug capsules, and tiny metals. Toilet facilities in the schools were in poor sanitary conditions with no running water. The mean temperature at holding for food samples in oC were: rice (57.4±4.6), “moi-moi” (57.1±5.9), “akamu” (34.3±1.5), vegetable-soup (59.0±6.7) and yam-porridge (63.4±3.6). There was a significant difference between temperature at holding for all food compared to the USFDA standard. The types and loads of bacteria isolated from the food samples were Escherichia coli (4.4x108), fecal coliform (5.1×108), Staphylococcus aureus (1.2x108) and Bacillus cereus (8.4x108) cfu/g. These were significantly higher than USFDA standard for food safety. Mean total coliform of 18 and 16cfu/100ml were obtained for cooking and drinking water respectively. Total coliform for cooking and drinking water exceeded SON water safety level. The level of food and water contamination in the schools was high. Although the food handlers have average knowledge of food safety and hygiene, the hygiene condition of food surroundings and toilets was poor. Therefore, there is need for hygiene education, training on food safety and regular monitoring in boarding secondary schools.
CHARACTERIZATION OF TRAFFIC-RELATED AIR POLLUTANTS AND ASSESSMENT OF RESPIRATORY CONDITIONS OF TRAFFIC WARDENS ACROSS TWO SELECTED LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF IBADAN, NIGERIA.
(2013-04) OLAMIJULO, J. O.
Traffic-related emissions contribute immensely to ambient air pollution in urban areas and Traffic Wardens (TW) have been reported to be at high risk of respiratory problems. Although data on road traffic emissions are available in Nigeria, information on personal exposure of traffic wardens to particulate matter is lacking. This study was designed to characterize traffic emissions and compare lung function status of TW with Regular Policemen (RP) in two Local Government Areas (LGA) of Ibadan. A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted involving all 122 TW (exposed group) in the study area and 125 RP (unexposed group). Ibadan North and Northeast LGAs were purposely selected based on high traffic density. Thirteen Study Locations (SL) were randomly chosen from eighteen identified SL in the two LGAs. Levels of sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and carbon (II) oxide (CO) emissions were measured using calibrated SO2, NO2 and CO metre respectively according to WHO guideline. Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) was measured using personal respirable dust sampler within 30cm range of the TW nasal region and values were compared with WHO guideline limit. Measurements were taken in the morning (6am - 8am), afternoon (12pm - 2pm) and evening (4pm - 6pm) for 12 weeks. Traffic density was estimated via manual counting using tally system. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to elicit information from the 247 respondents on work hours and respiratory problems. A calibrated spirometer was used to determine the Force Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) in 61 of the 122(TW) and 63 of the 125RP. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square and Pearson correlation tests at p ≤ 0.05. Mean gaseous emissions level were CO (38.6 ± 22.2ppm), SO2 (1.0 ± 0.7ppm), NO2 (0.2 ± 0.1ppm) and RSPM (28.1 ± 11.5µg/m3). These values exceeded the WHO guideline limit for CO (10ppm), SO2 (0.17ppm), NO2 (0.17ppm) and RSPM (25µg/m3). The peak CO emission level (165ppm) was recorded in the evening (4pm-6pm). Mean total traffic density at the SL was 3478 ± 1043.4/hr. Mean concentration of traffic emissions were elevated with increase in traffic density at SL. There was a significant positive correlation between SO2 and traffic density (r= 0.48). Mean age of TW and RP were 37.7 ± 9.3 years and 37.0 ± 7.7 years respectively. Majority (54.9%) of the TW spend more than 8hours at road intersections. Reported respiratory problems experienced included: breathing difficulty (TW: 66.4%; RP 6.4%), chest pain (TW: 72.1%; RP: 5.6%), sore throat (TW: 60.7%; RP: 14.4%) and catarrh (TW: 68.9%; RP: 41.6%). There was a significant difference between the observed FEV1 among TW (2.2 ± 0.7l) and RP (3.4 ± 0.5l). A negative correlation was observed between RSPM and the actual FEV1 of TW (r= -0.6). Ambient air emissions at study locations exceeded the World Health Organization guideline limit for occupational exposures and respiratory problems were higher among traffic wardens. Routine air monitoring of motor ways and the use of personal protective equipment by traffic wardens while on duty is advocated.
KNOWLEDGE, PRACTICES AND FACTORS INFLUENCING REPORTING OF NOTIFIABLE DISEASES AMONG HEALTH WORKERS IN TWO SELECTED RURAL AND URBAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA
(2014-03) GBADAMOSI, O.A.
Reporting of notifiable diseases is essential for control and prevention of outbreak of diseases. In Nigeria, reporting of Notifiable Diseases by health workers has not been adequately documented. This study was conducted to assess health workers knowledge, practices, and factors influencing disease reporting in urban and rural communities in Oyo State, Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey was carried out among the 210 health workers who were responsible for disease reporting at their health facilities. The 33 local government Areas (LGA) of Oyo State were stratified into rural and urban, out of which one rural (Afijio LGA) and one urban (Ibadan North LGA), were randomly selected. All the health facilities in Afijio (39) and Ibadan North (171) were included in the study. One respondent at each health facility (focal person) was then selected and interviewed. A semi-structured, self- administered questionnaire was used to obtain information on knowledge, practices, pattern and factors affecting reporting. The list of diseases included: immediate, routine, international and occupationally notifiable diseases. Knowledge was assessed on a scale of 50 points with score ≥30 as good. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics; Chi square, t-test and linear regression. Community Health Officers (30.1%), Nurses (26.0%) and Physicians (16.3%), constituted the majority of the respondents. Seventy-two percent (rural- 14.8% and urban- 57.1%) were aware of the existence of disease notification system while 26.5% knew the current strategy for reporting. Mean knowledge score for notifiable diseases among respondents was 27.6±8.4 with group means for rural and urban being 32.0±8.6 and 26.7±8.2 (p<0.001) respectively. About eleven percent (11.2%) of the respondents had good knowledge of the notifiable diseases. Majority (82.8%) of the respondents forwarded their routine health facilities reports to their respective LGA while 17.1% sent theirs to the Ministry of Health. Fifty-six percent of respondents sent reports through their staff while the rest had their facilities report collected by staff from State Ministry of Health and LGA. Main reasons for non-reporting included: lack of training on reporting (84.0%), absence of legal enforcement (58.0%), ignorance of reporting requirements (50.0%) lack of supervision (48.0%) and lack of reporting forms and telephone facilities (38.0%). Health workers that were aware of notification system were five times likely to comply with reporting than those that were not aware. (OR=5.0, 95% C.I = 1.5-17.5). Reporting of notifiable diseases was poor among the health workers at the Local Government level in Oyo State. Lack of training on reporting, absence on legal enforcement and ignorance on reporting requirements were major influencing factors. Regular training, effective supervision and logistic support to all notifiable diseases reporting health workers are recommended.
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF ROAD TRAFFIC CRASHES AMONG LONG DISTANCE DRIVERS IN IBADAN METROPOLIS, OYO STATE
(2014-07) ADEJUGBAGBE, A.M.
Road Traffic Crashes (RTC) are major causes of morbidity and mortality in Nigeria. While previous studies had reported increases in RTC among long distance drivers and had associated this with their risky behaviours, not many have focused on the distribution and determinants of RTC among long distance drivers in Ibadan metropolis. Information about the distribution of the risk factors of RTC among this group of drivers could be used to design, implement and evaluate interventions to reduce the risk. Hence, this study was conducted to describe the distribution of RTC by place, time of occurrence, characteristics of persons involved and identify factors associated with RTC among long distance drivers in Ibadan metropolis. Using a cross-sectional study, a two-stage sampling technique was used to select 594 consenting long distance drivers from 5 out of 12 major motor parks in Ibadan metropolis. A pretested interviewer-administered semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics, driving history, knowledge of road safety measures, perceived effects of use of psychoactive drugs on the safety behaviours and mobile phone when driving. Also incorporated in the questionnaire were history of RTC including place and time of occurrence of the last crash. Knowledge of road safety measures was scored based on drivers’ understanding of 7 road safety measures comprising speed and the six road safety signs, with scores ≥4 indicating good knowledge. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square test and logistic regression with level of significance set at 0.05. Respondents were males, with median age of 42.0 years (range: 20.0-73.0 years). Secondary education was the highest level of education attained by 38.0%. Most (96.3%) had been driving for more than five years and 77.7% had poor knowledge of road safety measures. About 23.6% reported the use of mobile phone when driving while, 38.7% and 33.8% reported current use of kolanut and alcohol respectively. The life time prevalence of RTC was 35.5% while 16.2% reported having had at least one RTC in the year preceding the study. The RTCs occurred mainly on narrow roads (25.0%) and bad portions of tarred roads (32.0%) with peak occurrence on weekends (Fridays- 20.0% and Saturdays- 21.3%) and in the afternoon (33.1%). Significantly higher proportions of drivers aged ≤39 years (23.9%), those with no formal education (29.9%), those who reported the use of mobile phone when driving (27.9%), those who reported alcohol (21.9%) and Kola nut use (19.6%) were involved in RTC in the last one year. A significant predictor of the last episode of RTC in the last one year was alcohol use (OR=1.8, CI=1.1-2.9). Road Traffic Crashes occurred mostly among long distance drivers who were young, non-formally educated, alcohol users and mobile phone users when driving. Discouraging the use of alcohol, kolanut and mobile phones when driving, as well as the implementation of road safety education programme among young and uneducated drivers is recommended.
LARVICIDAL EFFICACY OF AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF Moringa oleifera SEEDS ON MALARIA VECTOR, (Anopeheles gambiae) AND ITS TOXICITY EFFECTS ON MOSQUITO FISH, (Poecilia reticulata).
(2014-08) OHIA, C. M.
Malaria is one of the major public health problems in developing countries and its prevalence in Nigeria is dependent on the vector, Anopheles gambiae. The control of Anopheles is a major component of vector management but effectiveness has been limited by factors like insecticide resistance, cost, toxicity on non-target organisms and environmental pollution concerns. There is an increasing interest in developing plant-based insecticides as sustainable alternatives to chemical insecticides in mosquito control. This study was designed to determine the larvicidal efficacy of aqueous extract of Moringa oleifera seeds on the larvae of Anopheles gambiae and its acute toxicity effects on mosquito fish (Poecilia reticulata). The study involved extraction of toxic components in Moringa oleifera seeds using aqueous extraction technique. Five aliquots of concentrations (1160, 1450, 2900, 5800 and 8700 µg/mL) were prepared by serial dilutions from the extract. Three independent experiments were run in quadruplicates on 1440 laboratory reared third instar larvae of Anopheles gambiae; twenty larvae per treatment were used and control group was exposed to distilled water. Larvicidal parameters, mortality and pupation were recorded 24-hourly for 5 days; larvae were considered dead if they were immobile and unable to reach water surface. Two independent toxicity experiments were run in triplicates on 480 male mosquito fishes exposed to three graded treatments (10, 20 and 30 mg/mL) of the extract. Behavioural responses, increased respiration, loss of orientation, discoloration, motility and mortality were observed hourly for 24 hours. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, regression and probit analyses at p≤0.05. Probit was used to calculate the LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ values of the extract on Anopheles larvae and mosquito fish. Larvicidal effects across the concentrations ranged from 59.0%-99.3%; at 2900 µg/ml, 59.0% mortality was observed within 24 hours and this increased with exposure duration across the different concentrations. There was a high linear relationship, (r=0.87) between larval mortality and concentration of the extract. The larval bioassay showed that the extract presented a 24hour-LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ values of 2505.8 and 6293.4µg/ml respectively. At lower concentrations (1160 and 1450 µg/ml), the larvae lived as long as 7 days before pupating while in the control pupation was not delayed. Acute toxicity evaluation on the mosquito fishes gave a 96 hour- LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ of 24.0 and 82.0 mg/ml respectively and also showed that the fishes exhibited varying degrees of changes such as concentration and time-dependent progressive declines in fish motility, discoloration, with a corresponding increase in respiration and in the proportion of dead fishes as concentration increased unlike in the control. Moringa extract was highly toxic to Anopheles larvae, inhibited pupae development and had low toxicity on Poecilia reticulata. This extract should be used to improve vector control with minimal toxicity effects on non-target organisms.
QUALITY OF SOIL AND GROUNDWATER IN AUTOMOBILE WORKSHOPS IN AKINYELE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, OYO STATE, NIGERIA
(2014-09) OGUNBUNMI, T .O.
Heavy metal contamination from activities in automobile workshops is of public health concern. These heavy metals have capacity to remain in the environment over time. Several studies have been conducted on industrial water pollution but limited investigations have been carried out on water and soil quality around automobile workshops. This study therefore, was designed to assess the quality of soil and groundwater in automobile workshops in Akinyele Local Government Area (ALGA). A Simple random sampling technique was employed to select three of six zones of automobile workshops in ALGA: Alphonso, Temidire and Ojoo with one residential area (Moniya - control site). Eight automobile workshops were selected from each zone based on: absence of other industries and presence of dug wells. Water samples were collected from dug well (0-50 m) around the workshops. Physico-chemical parameters (Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Electrical conductivity, pH and Oil and grease) and heavy metals (Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) Cadmium (Cd) and Lead (Pb)) were determined using standard methods. Grab samples of top and sub soils were collected from the three locations and analysed. Values obtained were compared with WHO standards for potable water quality and United Kingdom Permissible Limits for soil quality. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at p<0.05. Mean results of water analysis revealed that TDS and Electrical conductivity for Alphonso, Temidire, Ojoo and Moniya were within WHO limits. The mean pH was 6.4±0.8, 6.8±0.7, 6.7±0.4 and 7.6±0.2 in Alphonso, Temidire, Ojoo and Moniya respectively. Median oil and grease content 1245 mg/l, 206 mg/l and 2650 mg/l in Alphonso, Temidire and Ojoo respectively, were above WHO limits. In the dug wells, mean concentrations of Cu (mg/l) was significantly higher in Alphonso (2.5±2.06) than other zones. Mean concentration of Cr (mg/l) was 0.34±0.28, 0.37±0.13 and 0.31±0.3 for Alphonso, Temidire and Ojoo respectively while it was not detected in Moniya. The median concentration for Cd (mg/l) in Alphonso, Temidire, Ojoo and Moniya were higher than the WHO limits. Lead was absent in all locations except Alphonso 8.50(0.0 -35.8) mg/l. Mean concentrations of all the metals were higher in all the zones than Moniya and WHO limits except for Cu in Temidire and Ojoo. In the soils, mean concentration of Cu (mg/kg) in Alphonso, Temidire, Ojoo and Moniya was 21.55±9.03, 50.41±2.65, 44.27±3.04 and 19.19±2.82 respectively. Mean concentrations of Cr (mg/kg) in Alphonso, Temidire, and Ojoo was 18.52±2.2, 22.52±3 and 15.4±1.73 respectively. Mean concentrations of Cd(mg/kg) in Alphonso, Temidire and Ojoo was 7.89±1.9, 5.3±3.14 and 6.07±5.6 respectively while mean concentrations of Pb (mg/kg) in Alphonso, Temidire and Ojoo was 80.19±7.43, 35.41±4 and 77.77±3.58 respectively. The mean concentrations of all the heavy metals (except Cd) were within the permissible limits for soil quality but higher than the control across the selected zones. The concentration of heavy metals above regulatory limits in soils and dug wells indicates contamination. There is the need for strict enforcement of safe waste handling methods to reduce soil and water contamination around automobile workshops.
EFFECTS OF AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF ONION (Allium cepa) AND GARLIC (Allium sativum) ON ARSENIC-INDUCED TOXICITY IN RATS
(2014-10) OKE, F. T.
Human exposure to arsenic toxicity poses a health problem. Allium cepa (AC) and Allium sativum (AS) have the potential to ameliorate the effects of arsenic toxicity and are widely used as condiments in Nigeria. A proper understanding of these possible ameliorating effects of AC and AS in reducing arsenic toxicity is important. This study was designed to assess the effects of AC and AS on arsenic-induced toxicity in rats. Seven weeks old male Wistar strain albino rats (Rattus novergicus) were acclimatized for 3 weeks. Lyophilized aqueous extracts of AC and AS were separately reconstituted in distilled water to give a concentration of 3 mg/L. Thereafter, the rats were randomly distributed into seven groups with five (5) rats in each group. Each group was given different treatments with dose equivalent of distilled water as follows: A (3 mg/L distilled water only, control), B (3 mg/L As2O3 only), C (3 mg/L AC extract only), D (3 mg/L AS extract only), E (3 mg/L each of AC and As2O3), F (3 mg/L each of AS and As2O3) and G (3 mg/L each of AC and AS extracts). Treatments were administered by gavage while maintaining the rats on commercial rat pellets and water ad libitum for 20 days. In addition to the baseline body weight, weights of rats, feed and water intake were recorded daily throughout the experiment. On day 20, the rats were sacrificed after which blood, liver, kidney, brain, testes, and spleen were removed for biochemical, haematological and histopathological examinations. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, paired t-test and ANOVA at 5% level of significance. Weight change for groups A to G was: 21.7±9.8 g, 7.6±12.1 g, 0.9±4.1 g, 8.0±12.0 g, 3.6±2.2 g, 2.2±1.0 g and 34.2±1.6 g respectively. The feed intake per day for group E (62.2+11.8 g) was the highest and significantly higher when compared with 61.8+18.4 g for group B. However, group C (53.8±11.8 g), D (56.7±24.2 g) were significantly lower when compared with 72.3+14.7 g of the feed intake for control. Packed cell volume (47.3+3.8%) was highest in F and significantly higher in comparison with 45.0+3.6% for group B. White blood cell count was highest in E (10567cell/mm3) and significantly higher when compared with 7500 cell/mm3 for control. Total protein (8.2+0.2 g/dl) for group F was higher than 7.8+0.7 g/dl for the control but not significantly different. Albumin production was significantly lower in G (4.1+0.1 g/dl) than the control (4.6+0.1 dl). Blood urea nitrogen production was significantly lower in group F (14.0+1.0 dl) than the control (15.3+0.6g/dl). Group B showed nasal discharge, fur removal, ocular lesion, cytoplasmic degeneration around renal tubules of the kidney, tissue necrosis of the liver, nuclear pleomorphism of the brain, and aggregation of inflammatory cells of the spleen than A,C,D and G. However, groups E and F showed none of these effects. Based on the detoxifying effects of aqueous extracts of Allium cepa and Allium sativum on arsenic-induced toxicity in rats, their use as condiments among humans should be encouraged and possibly promoted.
EVALUATION OF BIOGAS YIELD AND MICROBIAL SPECIES FROM MULTI-BIOMASS FEEDSTOCKS
(2014-12) OSEJI, M. E.
Virtually all countries, especially the developing nations, are being confronted with the twin problems of waste management and energy deficit. This development has led to the search for renewable energy sources. Although pig dung, water hyacinth and maize cob have been identified as good feedstocks for biogas production, studies utilising their mixtures have not been fully explored. This study was therefore designed to evaluate the biogas yield and microbial species from mixtures of biomass feedstocks. The feedstocks utilised for this study comprised Pig Dung (PD), Water Hyacinth (WH), and Maize Cob (MC). The PD and WH were sourced from University of Ibadan Teaching and Research Farm while MC was sourced from refuse bins in Oje Market. Six feedstock groups were selected namely PD, WH, MC, PD:MC (PM), PD:WH (PW), and PD:MC:WH (PMW). Each mixture was made in equal proportion on dry weight basis. A simple biogas digester was fabricated from a 10-litre plastic keg for feedstock biodegradation. Each feedstock sample to be digested was prepared by mixing 0.75 kg dry feedstock with 8.25 litres of water in the ratio of 1:11 (w/v) to form slurry. The slurry was fed into the corresponding digester, and kept for 35 days for anaerobic digestion while samples of the effluent were taken at seven days interval for five weeks for laboratory analyses. Parameters including temperature, pH, carbon, nitrogen, carbon to nitrogen (C-N) ratio, potassium, phosphorus, and microbial identification characteristics were determined using standard methods. Gas generated was estimated based on Archimedes’ Principle. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at p ˂ 0.05. Temperature and pH of all slurries ranged from 25.75±0.4oC to 28.75±0.4oC and 5.80±0.0 to 7.85±0.1 respectively. There was a significant difference in percentage nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium of the various slurries. Mean C-N ratio of the various slurries decreased from day 0 to day 35 as follows: 20.05±2.1 to 16.27±1.1, 23.28±0.1 to 12.95±1.2, 97.54±3.3 to 47.70±1.3, 57.27±0.2 to 28.34±2.1, 28.52±4.2 to 24.19±2.0 and 49.86±2.9 to 37.24±2.4 for PD, WH, MC, PM, PW, and PWM respectively. Predominant organisms identified at day 35 were: Methanobacterium, Enterobacter and Aspergillus spp. The anaerobic, coliform and fungal counts ranged from 6.80×102 to 1.0×105cfu/g, 4.3×104 to 6.2×106cfu/g, and 9.1×103 to 6.3×106cfu/g respectively throughout the duration of the study. The highest anaerobic count (1.0×105±0.03×105cfu/g) was recorded in PW on day 28. Peak biogas production was observed on day 23 for PD (987.50±3.5mL); day 24 for PW (1095.00±7.1mL), and PM (732.50±17.7mL); day 25 for MC (560.00±7.1mL), day 26 for WH (635.00±7.1mL) and PMW (662.50±10.6mL). Group PW had the highest biogas yield of 6067.00±38.2mL for the entire duration of the study. There was a significant difference between the mean biogas yields of the various feed stock groups. Co-digestion of pig dung with water hyacinth had the highest number of anaerobes and biogas yield as compared to single feed stocks. Therefore, the use of multi-biomass feed stocks for biogas production as a source of alternative energy production should be fully optimised.
EFFECTS OF SMOKE TREATMENT WITH Xylopia aethiopica AND Tetrapleura tetraptera FRUITS ON THE QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER IN ILLAH COMMUNITY, DELTA STATE, NIGERIA
(2015-01) OLANNYE, D. U.
Water-borne diseases, caused largely by lack of potable water, are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. Several indigenous water treatment methods have been developed to enhance the quality of drinking water. In Illah, a combination of dried fruits of Xylopia aethiopica and Tetrapleura tetraptera are used for household treatment of water without information on its potency in water purification. There is no documented information on the effectiveness of this treatment method in reducing level of water contaminants. This study was therefore designed to determine the effects of treatment with Xylopia aethiopica and Tetrapleura tetraptera fruits on the quality of drinking water in Illah community, Delta State, Nigeria. Samples of water from borehole and stream were collected using separate sterile containers in the community. The samples were divided into two parts and baseline analysis was conducted to determine pH, nitrate, iron, lead and Total Coliform Count (TCC) using standard methods. Ten litres of the water sample was left as control while the other 10 litres of water sample was subjected to indigenous water treatment as being practised in the households. In this indigenous water treatment method, 50g dried fruits each of Xylopia aethiopica and Tetrapleura tetraptera were ground together and burnt with hot charcoal thus, producing smoke. The sterile container was faced upside down directly to the smoke for 10 minutes after which the other ten litres of water sample left for treatment was immediately poured into the container. Samples of the treated water were then collected within 24 hours from the container for analyses. Results obtained for pH, nitrates, iron, zinc, lead and TCC were compared with the WHO guideline limits of 6.5-8.5, 50.0 mg/L, 0.3 mg/L, 3.0 mg/L, 0.01 mg/L and 10.0 cfu/mL respectively. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and t-test at p=0.05. The pH, nitrates, iron, zinc, lead values for borehole water at baseline and after treatment were: 6.5±0.1 and 6.6±0.1, 20.2±0.2 and 20.3±0.9 mg/L, 0.2±0.01 and 0.1±0.03 mg/L, 0.04±0.01 and 0.01±0.004 mg/L, 0.007±0.0001 and 0.004±0.002 mg/L and for stream water at baseline and after treatment were: 6.2±0.2 and 6.3±0.2, 22.2±1.2 and 21.9±0.8 mg/L, 0.3±0.02 and 0.2±0.05 mg/L, 0.01±0.004 and 0.04±0.003 mg/L, 0.009±0.001 and 0.004±0.003mg/L respectively. These values were within the WHO limits for potable water. However, TCC for borehole (129.0±7.8 cfu/mL) and stream (280.0±95.3 cfu/mL) water exceeded the guideline limits. After treatment, TCC for borehole water was 67.0±11.0 cfu/mL showing a significant difference when compared with baseline. The treatment reduced TCC in the borehole by 48.0%. The TCC for treated stream water was 203.0±54.9 cfu/mL. The treatment thus, reduced TCC in the stream water by 28.0%. Treatment of water with Xylopia aethiopica and Tetrapleura tetraptera dried fruits reduced the total coliform counts in both borehole and stream water. However, the total coliform counts were higher than the recommended guideline limits for potable water. An alternative water treatment that is more effective should be sought in the community.
ASSESSMENT OF SELECTED HEAVY METALS IN PARTS OF SLAUGHTERED CATTLE AND GOATS CENTRAL ABATTOIR FROM AKINYELE, IBADAN
(2015-04) OLADIPO, T. A.
Meat and offal obtained from cattle and goats sold in open markets serve as sources of protein, but may be susceptible to heavy metal contamination due to illicit disposal and emission in the environment. Consumers’ knowledge on the possible exposure to heavy metal contamination in meat and its associated health risks is low. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing heavy metal levels in these products. A cross-sectional study design with observational and laboratory analysis components was adopted. Lead, cadmium and chromium residues in blood, muscle, liver and kidney of cattle and goats slaughtered in central abattoir, Akinyele, Ibadan were determined. The abattoir was selected because it is the largest abattoir supplying live animals and meat to residents of Ibadan. A total of 40 animals (20 each of white Fulani cattle and red Sokoto goats) were purposively selected over a period of 8 weeks in conformity with FAO quality control guidelines. Values were compared with Joint FAO/WHO guidelines. These animals were of different sexes and ages (determined by the use of their dentition). Samples of blood was collected from jugular vein at slaughter using 5ml syringe and 21 gauge needle, external abdominus muscles, liver apical lobes and kidney cortices were collected. Samples were analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) for lead, chromium and cadmium. Statistical analysis was done using descriptive statistics and t-test at 5% level of significance. Age of 14 male and 6 female cattle was 49.5±14.7 months while the age of 12 male and 8 female goats was 28.8±8 months. Cadmium was found in 115 samples (71.9%), lead in 26 samples (16.3%) and chromium in 17 samples (10.6%). Chromium value in blood of cattle (0.6±0.0µg/ml) was significantly lower compared to goats’ (2.4±2.6µg/ml). In muscle tissue, liver and kidney, chromium values for cattle and goats were 0.6±0.0, 1.3±0.9 and 2.3±3.0 mg/kg and 0.0, 0.6±0.0 and 0.0mg/kg respectively. Chromium residues were higher in liver and kidney of cattle and goats’ blood than permissible limits of 1mg/kg. Cadmium value in blood of cattle (5.7±2.1 µg/ml) was significantly lower compared to goats’ (6.8±3.0µg/ml). In muscle tissue, liver and kidney of cattle and goats cadmium values were 3.8±2.1, 5.2±2.3 and 5.7±2.3mg/kg and 5.4±1.9, 5.5±2.9 and 4.8±1.9mg/kg respectively. These values were higher than permissible limit of 0.5-1.0mg/kg. Lead residual values in blood of cattle and goats were 0.5±0.6 and 0.0µg/ml, while in muscle, liver and kidney of cattle and goats were 0.1±0.2, 0.0 and 0.0mg/kg and 0.0, 0.0 and 0.0mg/kg respectively. These values were within the permissible limits (0.1-0.5mg/kg). Cattle were found to have higher levels of bioaccumulation for lead, cadmium and chromium residues when compared to those of goats. From central abattoir, Akinyele, Ibadan, cattle and goat meat contained high levels of cadmium and chromium which could pose health risk to consumers. Therefore, public health awareness on the risk associated with cadmium and chromium ingestion and measures to reduce them in meat and meat products should be advocated.
MICROBIAL LOAD AND INDOOR AIR QUALITY OF OPERATING THEATRES IN THE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE HOSPITAL, IBADAN
(2015-07) OGUNDARE, J. O.
Microbial contamination of indoor air of operating theatres is one of the risk factors for the development of Surgical Site Infections (SSI). Operating theatre environment, including personnel, can become contaminated with microorganisms capable of causing SSI, morbidity, prolong hospitalization of patients or even death. Studies on indoor air quality particularly the air-borne microbes that are associated with SSI have not been adequately investigated. This study was therefore designed to determine the air-borne microbial load and indoor air quality of operating theatres in the University College Hospital, Ibadan. A descriptive cross-sectional design which involved purposive selection of seven operating theatres viz: main (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5), gynaecology (T6) and emergency (T7) theatres was adopted. Temperature and Relative Humidity (RH) of the indoor environments of the theatres were measured three times a week before and after surgery using multi-tester N21FR. Values obtained were compared with the Association of peri-Operative Registered Nurses (AORN) guideline limits of 22.0ºC and 55.0% respectively. Particulate matter (PM10) concentrations in the indoor environments were measured using Met-one particle counter and compared with the World Health Organisation Guideline Limits (WHOGLs) of 50μg/m³. Air-borne microbial samples were collected using non-volumetric method. Total Bacterial Counts (TBC) and Total Fungal Counts (TFC) per cubic-metre were determined and compared with the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) guideline limit of 50 cfu/m3. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, ANOVA and Spearman’s rank correlation at 5% level of significance. Indoor temperature and Relative Humidity across the seven theatres were significantly higher after surgery (29.9±1.5ºC and 62.1±7.0%) than before surgery (27.6±1.1ºC and 61.2±8.2%) and were not within AORN guideline limits. Indoor PM10 after surgery (60.2±21.2μg/m³) was higher than before surgery (47.8±18.3μg/m³) and the WHOGLs. Indoor TBC after surgery was 2.1x102 cfu/m3 and then was higher than before (0.5x102 cfu/m3). Similarly, indoor TFC across the theatres after surgery (0.17x102 cfu/m3) was higher than before (0.03x102 cfu/m3) but lower than the AIHA guideline limits. Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp. and Aspergillus spp. were among the organisms isolated from the indoor air environment before and after surgery. Emergency theatre T7 recorded the highest RH (61.9±8.0%), PM10 (69.1±25.3μg/m³), TBC (1.52x102 cfu/m3) and TFC (0.16x102cfu/m3). A significantly positive correlation was observed between indoor TFC and RH (r = 0.124) and indoor TBC and PM10 (r = 0.099). Microbial load in the selected operating theaters was higher than the internationally recommended values for an ideal and safe operating theater. Therefore, operating techniques and environmental conditions should be properly monitored to ensure compliance with recommended
SOLID WASTE SEGREGATION AS A STRATEGY FOR IMPROVED WASTE MANAGEMENT IN OKAKA COMMUNITY, BAYELSA STATE
(2015-10) OVOH, P. S.
Solid waste management is an established environmental health challenge in most societies. The heterogeneous nature of municipal solid waste makes its management particularly complex. Waste segregation which is key to proper solid waste management has not been adopted in the Nigerian society. Improper waste segregation could result in diarrheal diseases. The study was designed to assess solid waste segregation as a strategy for improved waste management in Okaka Community, Bayelsa State. A quasi-experimental study was adopted and multistage sampling was used to select (30) households. A semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire comprising respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics, 14-point knowledge scale and 14-point practice scale was used. The knowledge and practice scores were rated as poor (≤4), fair (4-8) and good (8). Jute sack bags without label or colour code were given to households to collect solid waste for 1 week. Wastes collected were characterised and weighed at pre-intervention. Thereafter, labelled colour coded jute sack bags (Black for degradable and White for non-degradable waste) were provided and training on its use was conducted for 2 weeks for the households. The questionnaire was re-administered to the selected respondents’ after intervention. Waste from the households were collected and weighed for 1 week as post-intervention SW segregation. Non-degradable waste was segregated, characterised and its components were weighed. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, and t-test at p꞊0.05. Respondents’ age was 28.6±2.6 years. Educational status of respondents’ was non-formal (23.3%), primary (26.7%), secondary (20.0%) and tertiary (30.0%). Pre-intervention knowledge score of respondents’ was 2.7±0.2 while the practice score was 2.2±0.1. Respondents’ with poor and fair knowledge were 73.3% and 26.7%, while those with poor and fair practice were 70.0% and 30.0%, respectively. Pre-intervention SW segregated among the households were heterogeneous waste (5.0±0.5kg), metals (0.7±0.1kg), plastics (0.6±0.1kg), and glass (0.4±0.1kg). Respondents’ score for good knowledge was 9.4±0.2 while the practice score was 10.0±1.4 after intervention. Respondents’ knowledge score were good (64.3%) and poor (7.1%) while practice scores were good (93.3%) and poor (2.4%) after intervention. Respondents’ scores were fair for knowledge (28.6%) and practice (4.3%) after intervention. Knowledge and practice score were significant at pre and post- intervention. Waste segregated after intervention was degradables (2.2±0.6kg) and non-degradables (1.7±0.2kg). Components of non-degradable waste were nylon (0.4±0.1kg), metal (0.5±0.1kg), paper (0.4±0.1kg), plastic (0.2±0.1kg), glass (0.4±0.1kg), cloths (0.4±0.1kg), wood (0.5±0.1kg), shoes (0.6±0.1kg), e-waste (0.2±0.1kg), tetra-pack (0.2±0.1kg) and others (0.5±0.1kg). The knowledge and practice of solid waste segregation were improved after intervention. A lot of advocacy is needed to establish waste segregation practice. Public enlightenment, creation of buy-back recycling centres, community participation and training is highly recommended.
COMPARISON OF EFFECT OF STRUVITE PREPARED FROM SOURCE-SEPARATED HUMAN URINE WITH INORGANIC FERTILIZER ON AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS
(2015-11) ALUKO, O. R.
In Nigeria, use of urine for fertigation has been limited because of its liquid form, odour and the unsanitary disposal methods. This poses great hazard to man and the environment. Converting urine into dry fertilizer product (struvite) helps extract nutrients contained in urine and also eliminates handling problems. The study was aimed at converting urine to struvite and comparing its effectiveness on plant growth with inorganic fertilizer (NPK). The study involved the extraction of struvite from human urine and its use as fertilizer for raising Amaranthus caudatus in a screen house. Fourteen students selected randomly from the students' hostel at the University College Hospital produced 100 litres of urine which was stored for three months in order to reduce the microbial load. Triplicate samples of fresh and stored (stale) urine collected from the same set were analyzed for physico-chemical [pH, ammonia (NH3), nitrogen (N), phosphate (PO43-) and potassium (K)] parameters using standard methods at the point of collection and three months after. Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) with concentrations: 1.2M, 1.5M and 1.8M was added to 20 litres of stale urine to produce struvite of varying concentrations. Amaranth vegetable seeds were planted in 15 pots (of three replicates each) containing 2kg of soil treated with struvite and inorganic fertilizer while soil without either struvite or inorganic fertilizer was used as control. Plant height and stem width were measured and number of leaves were counted the second week of planting. Plants were harvested after the fourth week; with the wet and dry weight of the leaves, stem and root taken. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t- test and ANOVA at p=0.05. Mean pH of fresh and stored urine were 6.50±0.10 and 9.03±0.15 respectively. Mean concentration (mg/l) of NH3, N, PO43- and K were: 0.26±0.20, 1080.33±145.22; 46.00±1.00, 32.00±3.00; and 29.66±4.72, 1358.66±183.90, 45.66±3.05 and 35.33±0.57 for fresh and stored urine respectively. Mean concentration (mg/l) of N, PO43-, K present in struvite were 193.33±56.5, 471.66±61.71 and 34.56±2.18, with PO43-being significantly different when compared with stored urine. Mean plant height (cm) for control, struvite produced from 1.2M, 1.5M, 1.8M of MgCl2 solution and inorganic fertilizer at the fourth week were 20.00±0.90, 20.16±4.36, 29.08±0.87, 28.00±0.86 and 20.00±7.76 respectively. Mean stem width (cm) of control, struvite 1.2M, 1.5M and 1.8M and inorganic fertilizer were 0.34±0.02, 0.39±0.07, 0.48±0.02, 0.46±0.03 and 0.40±0.21 respectively while the mean numbers of leaves were 13.00±0.50, 12.50±1.50, 15.16±0.76, 15.16±0.76 and 13.00±2.64 respectively. Plant height and stem width of struvite 1.5M and 1.8M treated vegetable were significantly (p=0.05) higher and thicker respectively when compared with other treatments. Mean wet and dry weights (g) were: 11.58±2.77 and 1.76±0.38 (control), 14.90±11.09 and 2.39±2.19 (struvite 1.2M), 32.11±5.35 and 5.85±0.77 (struvite 1.5M), 28.81±3.84 and 5.45±0.92 (struvite 1.8M), 9.97±8.87 and 1.34±1.24 (inorganic fertilizer) respectively. Weights of struvite-treated vegetable were significantly higher when compared with other treatments. The highest dry weight (5.85 ± 0.77) was obtained with Amaranthus caudatus planted on struvite-treated soil. Struvite production and use in agriculture should be explored on a larger scale and could be employed as organic fertilizer to improve plant yield and indirectly improving environmental sanitation.