Religious Studies
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Item Berith as a Socio-Political and Economic Regulatory Mechanism in Ancient Israel and Traditional Ẹ̀gbá-Yorùbá Society(2014) Olugbemiro, O. B.Berith, a concept similar to ìmùlẹ̀ among the Ẹ̀gbá-Yorùbá of South-Western Nigeria, is a pact ratified by oath, binding two or more parties in a relationship of moral commitment to certain stipulations. It was used to regulate socio-political and economic life in ancient Israel. Previous studies on Berith have focused on its legal aspect, neglecting its moral basis as a means of effectively regulating and controlling socio-political and economic aspects of human society in ancient Israel and its relevance to the traditional Ẹ̀gbá-Yorùbá sociocultural context with shared experiences. This study, therefore, examined the effectiveness of berith as a means of regulating socio-political and economic life in ancient Israel as replicated by ìmùlẹ̀ among traditional Ẹ̀gbá-Yorùbá. The work was premised on Manus’ intercultural hermeneutics which relates the Bible to African socio-cultural situations. The historical-critical method was used to analyse relevant texts (2 Kgs.22:8-23:3; Exod.20:22-23:33; Deut.6:1-28:69), taking the Leningrad Codex as the vorlage. One thousand copies of a questionnaire were purposively administered in traditional Ẹ̀gbá -Yorùbá homesteads in five local government areas across Ogun and Oyo states, Nigeria. Forty key informants including The Aláké of Ẹ̀gbáland, The Olórí-Pàràkòyí of Ìjejà, a magistrate, 22 Ẹ̀gbá Chiefs, and 15 clergymen were interviewed. A focus group discussion (FGD) was held with the Aláké Regency Council in session. Observation was conducted at the traditional courts at Aké Palace and Olúwo’s residence. Data generated were subjected to exegetical analysis and percentages. Three stipulations of berith were applied in ancient Israel: the lex talionis (Exod.21:22-25), the law of restrictive royalty (Deut.17:14-15) and the law of standard metering (Deut.25:13-16). In Ẹ̀gbá land, The Ògbóni enforced retributive justice and restricted royalty to a family while the Pàràkὸyí enforced market standards through ìmùlẹ̀. Berith produced bonding experiences by creating artificial kinship ties, replicated in ìmùlẹ̀ as Alájọbí, and annual religious convocations (Deut.16:16), not exactly replicated in Ẹ̀gbáland where Ògbóni, Pàràkὸyí and Olórógun held religio-political meetings tri-weekly. Berith bound the hitherto autonomous Israelite tribes in religious commonwealth through common allegiance to YHWH (Deut.12:5-7). In ìmùlẹ̀, the earth stood as the common source-matter, binding 300 traditional Ẹ̀gbá-Yorùbá clans under one central Ògbóni. Berith like ìmùlẹ̀, imposed socio-religious obligations requiring members of the commonwealth to seek each other’s personal wellbeing (Deut.15:39-43), material security (Exo.23:4) and financial stability (Deut.15:7-11). About 90% of the respondents affirmed that ìmùlẹ̀ effectively regulated political and socio-economic behaviour of traditional Ẹ̀gbá by fear-appeal through potent oath-taking. All the key informants agreed that perceived grievous consequences associated with breaking ìmùlẹ̀ coupled with anticipated rewards for upholding it motivated the people towards honesty in their social, political and economic activities. The FGD revealed that ìmùlẹ̀ was effective because it employed potent oath implements. Berith in ancient Israel is approximately equivalent to ìmùlẹ̀ in Ẹ̀gbáland based on the shared conceptual experiences of the two societies. Thus, the effectiveness of the concept in regulating and controlling socio-political and economic activities in each case was anchored to these shared experiencesItem Land Utilisation and Welfare of Farmers in Sabbatical Legislation of the Book of Leviticus(2014) Odukogbe, I. O. O.Sabbatical legislation in the book of Leviticus is a set of land laws capable of promoting agricultural productivity and the welfare of the people. Previous studies on Sabbatical legislation in Leviticus have focused on land acquisition and distribution, neglecting various mistranslations that led to their misinterpretations. This anomaly changed the understanding of the concept of rest, which originally applied more to the human agentive utilisation and welfare agenda in ancient Israel. This study, therefore, re-interpreted Sabbatical legislation with particular reference to land utilisation and rest, agricultural productivity, and welfare of farmers, with a view to restoring a holistic and culture-bound translation. This study adopted Christopher Wright‟s Biblical Ecological theory, which holds that there is a link between proper land utilisation and the welfare of the people. The historical-critical method represented by Graf Wellhausen‟s Documentary hypothesis was employed to locate the progression, composition and transformation of Leviticus 25:1-7, the purposively selected text. Three documents from Food and Agriculture Organisation and extra-canonical texts, including the Mishna, Talmud and Nitzana scrolls, were consulted. Data were subjected to exegetical and descriptive analyses. Sabbatical legislation in ancient Israel has three main components, namely, land use, agricultural productivity and farmers‟ welfare. For the limited arable land mass, suffering from an unpredictable pattern of rainfall and drought and negatively affecting farmers‟ welfare, it was legislated in Leviticus 25:2 that land should rest (shabbat ‘eretz). Leviticus 25:3-4 also commanded that when land is left fallow every seventh year of cultivation and harvesting, it would be replenished and agricultural produce would be boosted. Leviticus 25:5-7 instructed abstentions from work as a result of rest for land which has positive ripple effects on man‟s physical and mental health thereby enhancing the holistic well-being of farmers. However, there was a certain omission in the earlier version by an exilic redactor who removed “in” from the phrase “you, (man) in the land shall observe (shabat) rest (Shabbat)”. This error has obscured the original motive of the Sabbatical legislation by modifying verses 2, 4 and 5, which make “the land” ‘eretz the subject of rest instead of an indirect object “in the land” be‘eretz–, thereby changing a social welfare measure for farmers to providing shabbathon ‘eretz shabat rest for the land. This modification might have been overlooked by earlier redactors who did not envisage the consequences on an agrarian community. Land was the focus of the prevailing interpretation while man became a secondary agent, which has contributed to the poor understanding of the legislation. When man replaces land as the subject of a new interpretation, the legislation will be given a better meaning and powerful people with assets and position may be restrained from exploiting and oppressing landless farmers. The importance of the new interpretation for land utilisation, agricultural productivity and farmers‟ welfare shows man, not land, as the main focus and interpreter. The reinterpretation of Sabbatical legislation in ancient Israel showed man as the primary focus of the concept. Future biblical revisions should restore the preferred translation of the textItem The Deuteronomic Response to Social Inequality in Ancient Israel and its Relevance to the Urhobo Socio-Cultural Context in Nigeria(2014) Iyede, M. O.The literary composition of Israel‟s religious history has been attributed to several schools, one of which is the Deuteronomic school with a strong social vision. One of its social visions was the response to social inequality. Existing studies on the Deuteronomic history (Deuteronomy-2Kings) have focused on various levels of redactions and cult centralisation but have not clearly articulated the Deuteronomic response to the phenomenon of social inequality and relevance from the African (Urhobo) socio-cultural perspective. This study, therefore, investigated the Deuteronomic response to social inequality in ancient Israel and its relevance to the Urhobo society. The study was anchored to Gottwald‟s Liberation Hermeneutics which identifies issues of social class, race and gender struggles inherent in biblical text. The Historical-critical method was employed for interpreting the chosen text segments (Deut.1422-29, 169-12,13-15, 2417-18,19-22, 265-15) A purposive sampling method was adopted in administering 400 copies of a questionnaire in three selected local government areas of Urhobo concentrated population in Delta State, namely, Udu, Ughelli South, and Okpe LGAs while three focus group discussion sessions composed of different categories of persons, age and sex were held in three villages: Emadadja, Egbo Uhurie and Orerokpe; chosen to correspond to the LGAs. Data collected were subjected to exegetical analysis using simple percentages. The Deuteronomic response elicited in the text has four main procedures: advocacy for empowerment of the marginalised which transfers the exclusive use of the Tithe from the Priest to caring for the marginal groups (Deut 1422-29) and shift in emphasis of the festivals from solely cultic to sociological purpose (Deut. 1613-15) Others are: emphasis on social justice in Israel‟s judicial system including protection of the marginalised (Deut. 2417-18,19-22) and the tradition-building process which interprets the salvation motif in the exodus tradition as a mandate for a humane society (Deut.265-15) These were proactive and ideological responses against gender bias, class and socio-economic disparity introduced by the monarchical system that put the marginal groups (Levites, orphans, widows and the sojourners) in precarious conditions in the 7th Century. Responses identified in Urhobo setting include Udje dance songs, names and proverbs which advocate equal opportunities, the widow inheritance system, and the culture of extended family support system. Data evidence however suggests changing trends in Urhobo which necessitates a paradigm shift. A total of 171 respondents (56.7%) disagreed that Urhobo inheritance system adequately protects widows, while 263 respondents (87.7%) agreed there are cultural practices that encourage social inequality. The focus group discussion sessions recognised the growing impact of inequality on orphans, widows and increasing poverty. Three aspects of the Deuteronomic Response for the Urhobo society, namely advocacy for protection of the marginal groups, empowerment and social justice are applicable to the religious and cultural situations in Urhobo society. These convergences adequately reflect the social inequalities characterising the Jewish and Urhobo societies