DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
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Item DIGESTION AND UTILIZATION OF PROTEIN IN THE WEST AFRICAN DWARF SHEEP(1974-10) ADEGBOLA, T. A.West African dwarf sheep maintained on Cynodon nlemfuensis/Centrosema pubescens hay and concentrate supplements were used to study intake and digestibility of dry matter and nitrogen metabolism. Levels of ruminal metabolites of nitrogenous origin and blood urea were examined on the rations fed to the sheep. [15N] ammonium chloride and [15N] urea were used to study the production of ammonia and its utilization in the rumen, and the flow of blood urea into the digestive tract. Shredded paper impregnated with chromic oxide was used to partition digestibility in the stomach and intestines of the sheep. The results for the West African dwarf sheep were compared with those of other breeds of sheep in intake and digestibility of organic matter and nitrogen metabolism. The intake of dry matter by the West African dwarf sheep was similar to that of other breeds when expressed per metabolic size. Nitrogen retention values were high and this shows that absorbed N was being utilized efficiently. The metabolic faecal N values of 3.0 to 3.7g N/kg dry matter intake and the endogenous urinary N value of 0.0238 g/day/WKg 0.734 were obtained for this class of livestock. The biological values of the rations ranged from 85.7 to 100.0%. The digestible crude protein requirement for maintenance over the experimental period was 0.74g/day/Wkg, 0.734 by the N balance mehod, and 0,22g/day/Wkg 0.734 by the factorial method. The levels of nitrogenous metabolites in the rumen varied with levels of dietary crude protein. Ruminal ammonia was highly correlated (r = 0.99) with blood urea. The amino acids present in lowest concentration in bacterial and protozoal protein are methionine and histidine while there are high levels of lysine and leucine. Isotopic studies with [15N] ammonium chloride and urea shows that 4-7% of [15N] ammonium chloride administered into the rumen was recovered in the faeces, and 3.1% was recovered in milk. Also 30.5% of [15N] urea administered into the blood was recovered in the urine and the isotope was not recovered in the faeces. Ruminal ammonia contributed 26 – 33% of the bacterial N and 15 – 19% of protozoal N ten hours after feeding. Urea was synthesized in the body at the rate of 9.4 to 10.1g/day, and 4.7 to 7.3g/day were degraded in the digestive tract of the sheep. The chromic oxide - impregnated paper method showed that 72.5% of digestible dry matter and 72.6% of digestive organic matter of the rations were digested in the stomach. The corresponding values for small intestine were 10.1% and 11.4% for dry matter and organic matter respectively, while in the ceacum and colon, the values were 17.5% and 16.0% for dry matter and organic matter respectively. Substantial amount of N of endogenous origin were secreted in the proximal small intestine but were efficiently absorbed before the distal portion was reached. The results show that the West African dwarf sheep utilize the hay and supplement rations efficiently and are adapted for survival in areas where the intake of N might be inadequate.Item THE EFFECT OF OXYTETRACYCLINE ON THE PERFORMANCE AND SERUM MINERAL LEVELS OF KIDS REARED WITH OR WITHOUT THEIR DAMS(1988) ADELEYE, B. O.Investigations were conducted to assess the effect of supplemental oxytetracycline-HC1 at various levels on performance and serum mineral levels of kids reared on two different systems of management, namely, kids reared with their dams and those reared artificially on cow's milk, with a view to determine the optimal level at which the best performance could be achieved. Forty-eight three-day-old goat kids weighing between 1.25 and 2.05kg with a mean weight of 1.79kg were used in this study. A group of animals assigned to a specific rearing method were randomly allotted to four treatment groups (0, 13.2, 19.8 and 26.4mg of oxytetracycline-HC1 daily). The experiment lasted for 84 days. The results on performance showed that the voluntary milk intake and liveweight gain of kids reared with their dams were comparable with their counterparts on cow's milk for the first two weeks of the experiment. Thereafter, the milk intake of kids reared with their dams diminished due to fall in dam's milk yield, resulting in lower weekly liveweight gain. At the end of the experiment, the mean weekly liveweight gain of kids reared on cow's milk were higher (241.90 vs 295.20g). However, kids reared with their dams exhibited better feed efficiency than their counterparts on cow's milk, indicating that the observed higher weekly liveweight gain was as a result of the higher milk intake. Oxytetracycline-HC1 supplement enhanced weekly liveweight gain of kids reared with their dams. The overall mean weekly liveweight gain for kids on treatment levels (0, 13.2, 19.8, and 26.4mg of oxytetracyclne-HC1 daily) were 171.70, 216.56, 216.39 and 333.80g, respectively, for kids reared with their dams. The corresponding values for kids reared on cow's milk were 330.56, -315.31, 289.59 and 246.34g, respectively. Oxytetracycline-HCl supplement did not depress the serum levels of Ca, Na, K, Cu, and Fe, particularly when fed between 13.2 and 19.8mg/day. Slight decrease in the serum levels of P and Mn compared to the control were observed, although the differences were not significant. However, oxytetracycline significantly depressed the serum Mg levels, particularly in kids reared with their dams. Results obtained with the two systems of management suggested that oxytetracycline-HC1 was capable of improving the performance of kids reared with their dams. Oxytetracycline-HC1 fed as supplement to kids already adequate in milk intake was not encouraging, since no apparent improvement in performance over the unsupplemented kids was produced. Oxytetracycline- HC1 supplement at level of 26.4mg/day is recommended for adequate liveweight gain and optimal feed efficiency without adverse effect on the serum mineral status of the pre-weaned kids.Item HORMONAL AND PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS WITH ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE AND CATIONS IN THE PORCINE BRAIN AND HYPOPHYSES IN A HOT HUMID CLIMATE(1983-08) ADEJUMO, D. O.Prenatal and Postnatal changes in the physiological development of the porcine brain were determined. The results indicated a decline in amniotic fluid volume with increased gestation length. Marked fetal brain and body development was observed between four and six weeks of gestation where mean embryo weight increased by 48,878% from four weeks to six weeks with a concomitant increase of 1,300% in mean fetal brain weight. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the amniotic fluid declined progressively with age (r=-0.56) while AChE activity in the fetal brain increased with gestation length (r=0.88). Total protein in both the amniotic fluid and in fetal brain did not correlate significantly with gestation length (P>0.05). Specific acetylcholinesterase (SAChE) activities in the amniotic fluid declined significantly between four and six weeks of gestation while activity in the fetal brain increased significantly from 5.12 ± 0.39 at 6 weeks to 21.54 + 2.6 at 12 weeks. Postnatally, AChE activity declined significantly with age in the pons, hypothalamus, midbrain, medulla and hypophyses while no significant changes were observed in the cerebellum, cerebral cortex and hippocampus. A significant rise was observed in the amygdala. Total protein increased significantly with age in all brain regions and hypophyses while SAChE activities declined steadily with age. Significant and Positive correlations were observed in the calcium and sodium content of the embryonic brain while negative correlations were observed in the copper and zinc content. Postnatally, Positive correlations were observed in the calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, copper and zinc contents of the pons, cerebellum, medulla and midbrain. The effects of castration at different ages and hormonal therapy on brain and hypophyseal physiology of pigs were also evaluated. Castration significantly depressed AChE activity in the cerebellum, amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, midbrain and medulla in all age groups except at 7-8 months of age while testosterone maintained AChE activity at levels similar to controls. The cortex was not significantly affected except in the Pre-weaners where a depression was recorded. AChE activity in the adenohypophyses of testosterone-treated castrates and controls were similar and inferior to the untreated castrates. Protein levels of all the brain regions and hypophyses of boars were depressed by castration. In addition treated castrates were still inferior to the controls. A decline was also observed in the concentrations of calcium, sodium, potassium, copper and zinc in castrated boars. Exogenous Progesterone or estradiol administration also significantly depressed AChE activity in the cerebellum, amygdala, hippocampus, midbrain and the medulla with the Progesterone - induced depression being significantly lower than that caused by estradiol. Total protein in the brain regions of ovariectomized gilts was depressed by estrogen and progesterone but to varying extents. Progesterone tended to elevate magnesium and zinc in the amygdale, hippocampus and cerebellum while estradiol facilitated retention of copper and potassium in several brain regions and the neurohypophyses. Testosterone injection also significantly depressed AChE activity in all brain regions. However no significant differences were observed in the hypophyses. Testosterone further depressed total protein levels in the cerebellum, hypothalamus, cortex, medulla and elevated it in the pons. Testosterone injection in gilts also depressed calcium levels in all brain regions and hypophyses while causing a rise in the magnesium, zinc, and potassium levels in several regions. Lastly, heat stress caused significant increases in respiratory rates and rectal temperatures of heat-stressed boars. Heat stress also elevated AChE and SAChE activities in the Pons, cerebellum, amygdala, hippocampus and medulla. No significant effect was found in the cortex. Total protein levels in the heat-stressed pigs were generally inferior to the controls but the amygdala and cortex were unaffected. Heat stress significantly increased calcium, potassium levels and depressed magnesium, zinc and copper levels in several regions. Water deprivation also depressed AChE activity in the amygdala, medulla and hippocampus but no effect was observed in the cortex. Total protein levels were also depressed by water deprivation in several regions whereas SAChE activities were elevated in water deprived animals above the controls. Water deprivation resulted in a decline in Calcium and Sodium levels of several regions while increases were recorded in magnesium, potassium and zinc concentrations in some brain regions and the hypophyses.Item STUDIES ON DRY MATTER, ENERGY AND PROTEIN UTILIZATION OF THREE BREEDS OF DAIRY COWS AT IBADAN(1976-07) ADEBOWALE, A.Comparative studies were conducted on exotic (German Brown and Friesian) and indigenous (White Fulani) lactating cows to assess (a) the systems of management best suited for the newly imported lactating, exotic cows for maximum production (b) the effects of seasons, stage of lactation, breeds and diets on feed dry matter (DM) intake, liveweight changes, milk yield and composition, respiration and body temperature of White Fulani (WF), German Brown (GB) and Friesian (F) lactating cows and (c) the effects of DM intake, dietary level, stags of lactation and breed on productivity, digestibility of feed, milk composition, energy and protein utilization, rumen and blood metabolites. Results on management studies indicated that the grazed cows produced more milk, solids-corrected milk (SCM), butter- fat, ash and less milk protein than the stall-fed (P<.05). Although higher respiratory counts, water intake and body temperatures were recorded for the grazed cows than the stall-fed ones, the results were not statistically significant (P> 0.05) Lactation studies showed that the exotic breeds consumed more forage DM than the indigenous, giving 5.92±0.21, 5.59±0.l6 and 4.49±0.16kg/day for the F, GB and WF cows respectively. The peak forage DM intake was attained between the 5th and 10th week of lactation. The mean milk yield and SCM were 27.55±6.15 and 29.83±5.26kg/week respectively for the WF cows, 40.16±6.15 and 36.91±3.26 respectively for the F and 41.16±8.19 and 40.16±5.84kg/week respectively for the GB. Peak milk production was attained between the 5th and 9th week of lactation. Generally, results showed that the milk of the WF cows possessed higher milk quality, producing higher percentage of butterfat and protein, than the exotic breeds. Although there were more forage DM intake during the dry season than the wet, higher milk yield was recorded during the latter season than the former. Liveweight losses occurred from the beginning of the experiment to about the 10th week of lactation. The results of the relationship between rumen metabolites and milk yield showed that when the ratio of acetate to propionate was lower, there was a higher yield of milk and protein but when the ratio was higher, there was an increased butterfat. The digestible crude protein'(DCP) values for maintenance were 0.39g/day/W(0.734 kg) (91.82g/day available protein (AP), O.47g/day/(0.734 kg) (113.28g/day AP) and 0.52g/day/(0.734 kg) (121.77g/day AP) for the WF, GB and F cows respectively. The N-balance studies indicated that 6.69gDCP/day/W(0.734 kg) (304.80gAP/day) were required by the WF cows to produce 3.35kg milk/day (0.51%N), 6.34DCP/day/W(0.734 kg) (353.93gAP/day) by the GB cows to produce 6.17kg milk/day (0.47%N) and 6.54gDCP/day/W(0.734 kg) (359.20g AP/day) by the F cows to produce 7.08kg milk/day (O.49%N). The mean net efficiency of protein utilization were 27.95, 43.43 and 53.73% for the WF, GB and F cows respectively. The metabolizable energy values for maintenance were 0.53, 0.59 and 0.61 MJ/day/W(0.734 kg) for the WF, GB and F cows respectively. These are 72.29, 72.75 and 73.43% of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food of the United Kingdom (MAFF)(1975) recommendation respectively. The gross energetic efficiencies for milk production were 10.23, 12.79 and 14.33% for the WF, GB and F cows respectively while the net energetic efficiencies were 25.47, 31.31 and 37.50% respectively. Finally, the conclusions from the trials have shown that 8.3% (WF), 10.3% (F) and 11.2% (GB) of the energy intake were contributed by the protein fraction of the DM intake.Item EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN DIETARY ENERGY LEVELS ON THE GROWTH AND CARCASS QUALITY OF THE NIGERIAN DWARF SHEEP(1976-04) ADEBAMBO, V. O.A total of 76 animal experiments, involving young Nigerian Dwarf Sheep, were conducted to investigate the growth response to effects of varying levels of dietary energy. The studies also embraced digestibility trials and carcass evaluation. Results obtained appear to indicate that between the ages of 3 - 6 months, a daily intake of 107.1 kcal metabolizable energy was required for maintenance while from 6 - 9 months of age the requirement increased to 129.2 kcal per day. A growth requirement of 215 kca1 ME/day/W0.73kg and 1387 kcal ME/dayW0.73kg was obtained for animals between 3 - 6 months and 6 - 9 months respectively. An analysis of the pooled results seems to indicate that 134.04 kca1 ME per day and 647kca1/ME/day/W0.73kg was the requirement for maintenance and increase of 1 kg. live-weight respectively. Studies on digestibility of feeds revealed that the effects of variations in the type of ration on digestibility was less marked than the effects due to age of the animals. Crude fibre digestibility coefficient for the basal diet was about 68.04% for the older animals while the corresponding values for the younger animals ranged between 54.4% and 56.0%. values for the mixed diet and concentrate ration ranged from 68.3% to 77.45% and 71.3% to 79.5% respectively with the older animals while the corresponding values for the younger animals were in the range of 58:01% to 60.59% and 63:8% to 65.02%. Results of animal performance indicated that younger animals are capable of faster growth than older ones but the effect of low plane of nutrition as indicated by growth rates is more adversely felt by the younger animals. Thus the mean daily weight gains of the older animals were 79.6g, 83.8g, 82.2g, 55.7g for treatments A, B, C and D respectively while the corresponding values for the younger animals were 97.7g, 71.8g, 45.7g and 21.7g respectively. The carcass evaluation showed that dressing percentages and percentage flesh increase with age. At six months and in all treatments, the range was between 34.3% to 43.8% while at 9 months it rose to 49.7% to 60.8%. Percentage of flesh in the carcass has been shown to range from 62.6% to 66.2% at birth with a possible increase of about 0.7% to 0.9% per kg live-weight gain. The results of this study have shown that the younger animals are capable of faster growth and respond faster to high plane of nutrition but the effect of low plane of nutrition as indicated by growth rates of all animals on the lower energy level diets, is more adversely felt by the younger animals. It is to be noted that the early weaned lambs cannot survive on pasture alone. The results also were discussed in terms of the economics of production.Item SOW MILK YIELD AND COMPOSITION IN RELATION TO DAM AND LITTER PERFORMANCE(1976-08) ADEBAMBO, O. A.A total of 100 sows involving seven pure and crossbred genotypes of the Large White, Landrace, indigenous pigs of Nigeria and the Duroc x Large White, Duroc x Landrace and reciprocal crosses between the Large White and Landrace were used. The study embraced the milk production, milk composition and the performances of both sows and their litters. Results obtained indicate that milk production was quite low with the average eight week production of 73.99 kg of the indigenous sow to 153.21 kg of the Duroc x Large White crosses. However, percentage milk constituents were quite high with values of 19-23%, total solids, 7 - 9.2% fat, 6.9 - 7.5% protein, 4.6 - 6.0% Lactose, 0.7 - 0.9%, 0.19 - 0.35% Calcium and 0.11 - 0.20% phosphorus in both colostrum and milk. The yield of milk nutrients were similarly high, namely protein 92-175, fat 119—228 and total solids 291—576 g/sow/day and a corresponding yield of protein of 306 - 334, and fat 310 - g/kg dry matter. Litter size and litter weights at birth were quite comparable with what obtains under temperate conditions yet litter weaning weights were suboptimal in the range of 4.4 - 10 kg per piglet at eight weeks. Contrarily efficiency of milk utilization was very high and in the neighbourhood of 4 - 6 kg milk per kilogram weight gained for the pure bleeds and 2 -3 kg for the crossbreeds. Milk yield per metabolic body size was insignificantly different with values of 3.7 - 4.3 kg recorded. A high phenotypic correlation between milk and body weight at farrow could be a measure of increasing milk production of the smaller bodied indigenous pigs through selection for body size While the crossbred sows outweighed the pure breeds in their reproductive performance, all breeds suffered from seasonal fluctuation which depresses the milk production and reproductive efficiency. It can be stated that milk production of the sow is not the only limiting factor to higher productivity under the tropical condition. It is a combination of environment and management procedures in that seasonal depression has been implicated in most of the traits studied. Another major contributing factor has been the sub-clinical level of hygiene under which the animals exist. Reports have indicated that crossbreds are less susceptible to performance problems when they are bred and selected in the environments in which they are expected to perform as borne out by the results of this study. Crossbreeding might be a solution to most of these breeding problems especially by incorporating favourable genes of adaptation, disease resistance and some yet to be discovered traits in our indigenous pigs with those of the exotic purebred to develop a new breed of pig in the tropics for the tropics. The results were therefore discussed in the light of superiority of crossbreeding and adaptation of the indigenous sow.Item STUDIES ON THE VALUE OF COCOA HUSK IN THE NUTRITION OF COCKERELS(1988-09) ABIOLA, S. S.Four studies were carried out to determine the nutritive value of cocoa husk in cockerel rations. The parameters measured included performance and carcass characteristics, nutrient utilisation, histological studies, serum metabolites and economy of feed conversion. In the first study, the four main by-products from the cocoa industry (cocoa shell, cake, dust and husk) were chemically evaluated and their metabolisable energy values determined. Cocoa cake was found to contain the highest amount of crude protein while the crude fibre was highest in cocoa husk. Cocoa husk which also contained the highest amount of ash had the lowest content of theobromine. However, cocoa shell had a higher metabolisable energy value than cocoa husk. The high mineral content and low level of theobromine in cocoa husk coupled with its availability confirmed its advantages as an animal feed over the other cocoa by-products. In the second study, the wheat offal in the cockerel rations in both the starter and finisher phases was replaced with cocoa husk at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% levels in a twenty week study. In both phases, body weight gain decreased progressively with increasing dietary level of cocoa husk. The depression in growth rate was attributed to the high fibre Content of cocoa husk. The mean values of bodyweight gain in the starter phase were statistically significant (P<0.05) from each other. At the end of the starter phase, however, best results of average daily gain and efficiency of feed utilisation were obtained on birds fed the diet in which 25% of wheat offal was replaced with cocoa husk. This represents about 7% of cocoa husk in the ration for the starter phase. For the finisher phase, best results of < average daily gain, efficiency of feed utilisation and dressing out percentage among the cocoa husk diets were also obtained on birds fed the finisher diet in which 25% of wheat offal was replaced with cocoa husk. In addition, the lowest feed cost/kg liveweight of N4.89 was obtained on this diet which represented about 6% of cocoa husk in the finisher ration. The third study focused on the replacement of groundnut cake (GNC) in the cocoa husk based rations with palm kernel cake (PKC) at 0, 33, 66 and 100% levels in a sixteen week study. At the end of the starter phase; best results of average daily gain and efficiency of feed utilisation were observed on the birds fed cocoa husk diet in which 33% of the protein of the GNC was replaced with that of PKC. Average daily gain decreased with increasing levels of PKC in the diet. The protein intake in the starter phase also decreased with increasing level of fibre in the diet. The results of the performance of the cockerels in the finisher phase were not statistically different (P>0.05) from one another. However, best results of efficiency of feed utilisation and lowest mortality in the finisher phase were obtained on the birds fed cocoa husk diet in which the GNC was completely replaced with PKC. Compare with the result obtained on the control diet, the highest dressing percentage was also obtained on the diet without GNC. The histological changes noticed in the brain, liver and kidney tissues in all the treatments indicated chronic theobromine poisoning. Finally in this study, 20% and 37% levels of PKC were recommended in the cocoa husk based rations for the starter and finisher phases respectively. In the last study, cocoa husk was treated with the alkaline cocoa pod husk ash in order to improve it's digestibility. The treated cocoa husk (TCH) was mixed with the starter and finisher diets of cockerels in a study which lasted for sixteen weeks. The mean values of daily feed intake in the starter phase were statistically different (P< 0.05). The best results of bodyweight gain and protein utilisation were obtained on birds fed diets with 14% and 20% TCH in the starter and finisher phases respectively. The higher blood pH values obtained in the finisher phase could be due to the higher levels of treated cocoa husk (TCH) in the finisher diets. The highest dressing percentage was obtained on the diet containing 20% TCH while the best result of feed conversion was recorded on the diet containing 24% TCH. The results of this final study indicated that cockerels can tolerate higher Levels of TCH in the ration as compared to the lower levels of untreated cocoa husk recommended in the previous studies. Therefore, the levels of 14% and 20% TCH can be incorporated respectively in the starter and finisher diets of cockerels for optimal performance. However, as economy of feed conversion is of paramount importance to the poultry farmer, 24% of TCH in the finisher diet will be ideal.